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Riferimenti

Reference material for florists and plant lovers: a flower guide for quick answers, historic botanical plates, and in-depth libraries by plant group. Every page cites its sources.

Flower guide

157 cut flowers, foliage and branches: botanical name, vase life, season, meaning, care and pet safety.

Browse the flower guide ›

Plant reference pages

Genus and species pages: accepted name and authorship, place of publication, synonyms, subspecies, native range, historic plates and database links, checked against WCVP. Currently in English and Chinese.

Plant Taxonomy & Mindmap

Plant taxonomy & lineage mindmap

Explore the botanical hierarchy from plant families and genera, down to foundational wild ancestors and modern commercial cut-flower cultivar groups. Click any genus or article to jump to its in-depth library.

Family

Orchids Orchidaceae

Order Asparagales
2 genera

Largest family of monocotyledons; characterized by columns (gynostemium), specialized labella, pollinia, and mycorrhizal symbiosis.

Genus

Moth orchids (Phalaenopsis) Phalaenopsis

Monopodial epiphyte
Topic Library › Botanical Page ›

Lacks pseudobulbs; flat fleshy leaves, broad butterfly-like lateral petals, and racemose or paniculate inflorescences.

Wild Species & Ancestors
4
  • Species P. amabilis · Moon orchid

    Wild species · Core parent for standard white cultivars

    Native to Java and the Philippines; pure white flowers with yellow-and-red spotted lip, founding modern large white hybrids.

  • Species P. schilleriana · Schiller's phalaenopsis

    Wild species · Parent for pink flowers and mottled foliage

    Features silver-mottled tiger leaves, large fragrant pink blooms with profuse branching; key parent of pink hybrids.

  • Species P. bellina · Bellina orchid

    Wild species · Parent for intense fragrance and star petals

    Native to Borneo; white, green, and magenta gradient blooms with intense citrus fragrance; core parent for scented hybrids.

  • Species P. equestris · Horse orchid (P. equestris)

    Wild species · Parent for multiflora and miniature hybrids

    Native to Orchid Island (Taiwan) and the Philippines; small dense flowers on prolific branches with long blooming period.

Cultivar & Commercial Groups
4
  • Group Standard Large White

    Bred from P. amabilis with blooms 10–14 cm wide; premier choice for ceremonies and festival gifting.

  • Group Standard Large Pink

    Incorporates P. schilleriana genetics; rounded petals ranging from soft blush to deep magenta.

  • Group Striped & Harlequin Phalaenopsis

    Features radial stripes or dense dark blotches, including the iconic Harlequin dark-patterned cultivars.

  • Group Miniature & Multiflora Phalaenopsis

    Compact plants with prolific branching and abundant small flowers, ideal for tabletops and modern interior decor.

Genus

Boat orchids (Cymbidium) Cymbidium

Terrestrial or semi-epiphytic herb
Topic Library › Botanical Page ›

Possesses ovoid pseudobulbs, strap-like leathery leaves, erect or arching racemes, and three-lobed labella with lamellae.

Wild Species & Ancestors
6
  • Species C. sinense · Chinese New Year orchid

    Traditional Chinese orchid · Year-end festival bloom

    Blooms in winter through early spring with dark brownish-purple flowers; stately erect stems and delicate scent.

  • Species C. ensifolium · Sword-leaved cymbidium

    Traditional Chinese orchid · Multi-blooming in summer and autumn

    Hardy and easy to bloom, featuring yellowish-green tepals with purple specks and refreshing fragrance.

  • Species C. faberi · Faber's cymbidium

    Traditional Chinese orchid · Multi-flowered noble classic

    Stiff upright leaves, carrying 8–15 fragrant flowers per stem; a hallmark of classical scholar floristry.

    Topic Library ›
  • Species C. eburneum · Ivory-colored cymbidium

    Modern large cymbidium ancestor · Parent of white fragrant blooms

    Himalayan native with large ivory-white blooms and bright yellow markings on the lip; pure clear fragrance.

  • Species C. iridioides · Iris-like cymbidium

    Modern cymbidium ancestor · Source of giant blooms and earthy tones

    Blooms over 10 cm wide, yellow-green patterned with red-brown stripes; large, cold-hardy, spreading racemes.

  • Species C. insigne · Splendid cymbidium

    Modern cymbidium ancestor · Foundation for erect spikes and pink hues

    Exceptionally tall and rigid erect flower spikes with pink to white blooms, establishing modern upright cymbidiums.

Cultivar & Commercial Groups
3
  • Group Classical Chinese Terrestrial Orchids

    Classical Chinese orchids valuing understated leaf variegation, formal flower aesthetics, and elusive fragrance.

  • Group Standard Cut Cymbidiums

    Tall, robust spikes carrying numerous waxy blooms with outstanding vase life (3–5 weeks); centerpiece for banquets.

  • Group Cascading & Miniature Cymbidiums

    Gracefully arching or pendulous inflorescences cascading like waterfalls, perfect for hanging and modern styling.

Family

Rose family Rosaceae

Order Rosales
1 genera

Premier family in commercial floristry; features stipules, perigynous to epigynous flowers, numerous stamens, and a cup-shaped hypanthium.

Genus

Roses (Rosa) Rosa

Deciduous / evergreen shrub or climber
Topic Library › Botanical Page ›

Prickly woody stems, odd-pinnate serrated leaves, solitary or corymbose blooms, and fleshy urn-shaped hips.

Wild Species & Ancestors
6
  • Species R. chinensis · China rose

    Primary ancestral rose · Origin of repeat-blooming trait

    Ancient Chinese shrub introduced to Europe in the 18th century, introducing continuous repeat-blooming genetics.

  • Species R. multiflora · Multiflora rose (Baby rose)

    Ancestral species · Source of dense clusters and winter hardiness

    East Asian wild rose with massive panicles of small fragrant flowers; rootstock for grafting and parent of Polyanthas.

  • Species R. rugosa · Rugosa rose (Beach rose)

    Ancestral species · Exceptional disease resistance and cold hardiness

    Coastal East Asian rose with wrinkled dark green leaves, clove scent, huge orange hips, and total immunity to blackspot.

  • Species R. gallica · French rose (Gallic rose)

    Old garden rose · Origin of deep crimson and damask scent

    Medieval European red rose rich in anthocyanins; foundational source for crimson hues and rose attar.

  • Species R. × centifolia · Cabbage rose (Hundred-leaved rose)

    Historical perfume rose · Source of dense globe form and Grasse scent

    Bred by Dutch masters in the 17th century; 100+ overlapping petals with sweet honeylike fragrance; the iconic Rose de Mai.

  • Species R. × damascena · Damask rose

    Queen of aromatic roses · Global gold standard for attar of roses

    Ancient Middle Eastern hybrid revered for thousands of years; produces the world's most exquisite and valued rose essential oil.

Cultivar & Commercial Groups
4
  • Group Hybrid Tea Roses (HT)

    Sturdy long stems topped with a single high-centered pointed bloom; undisputed global pillar of cut roses.

  • Group Spray & Floribunda Roses

    Branched stems bearing clusters of blooms, adding rhythmic depth and volume to bouquets and centerpieces.

  • Group Garden & English Roses

    Deep cup or rosette blooms with 80–120 petals, releasing potent myrrh or fruity perfume; top choice for bridal luxury.

  • Group Climbing & Miniature Roses

    Long flexible canes for arches and pergolas, and compact miniature varieties for delicate fine floral work.

Family

Lily family Liliaceae

Order Liliales
2 genera

Representative monocot bulbous family; large showy flowers, 6 tepals in two whorls, 6 stamens, superior 3-locular ovary.

Genus

True lilies (Lilium) Lilium

Scaly-bulbous perennial
Topic Library › Botanical Page ›

Uncoated scaly fleshy bulbs, alternate leaves, trumpet/funnel blooms, and versatile dangling anthers.

Wild Species & Ancestors
5
  • Species L. candidum · Madonna lily

    Old World white lily · Classical symbol of purity

    Mediterranean native cultivated since antiquity; glistening white trumpets with bright yellow pollen and sweet perfume.

  • Species L. lancifolium · Tiger lily

    Asiatic hybrid parent · Source of fiery orange, spots, and hardiness

    East Asian hardy lily with recurved bright orange tepals densely spotted with purple-black; produces axillary bulbils.

  • Species L. speciosum · Japanese showy lily

    Oriental hybrid parent · Source of recurved petals and spots

    Strongly recurved turban-like petals with raised crimson papillae, adding grace and color to Oriental hybrids.

  • Species L. longiflorum · Easter lily

    Trumpet benchmark · Pristine ceremonial classic

    Long trumpet tubes opening horizontally; pristine waxy white, legendary for Easter and sacred ceremonies.

  • Species L. superbum · Turk's cap lily (L. superbum)

    North American wild lily · Towering height and dramatic reflexed form

    Tallest native American lily (up to 2.5 m), bearing pyramids of nodding yellow-orange-red recurved blooms with green star centers.

Cultivar & Commercial Groups
4
  • Group Oriental Lilies (O-type)

    Magnificent blooms (18–25 cm) with wavy recurved petals and heady fragrance; includes 'Siberia' and 'Sorbonne'.

  • Group Asiatic Lilies (A-type)

    Upright blooms in vibrant bright colors (yellow, orange, fire-red); completely unscented, allergy-safe.

  • Group Longiflorum Lilies (L-type)

    Slender trumpet-shaped horizontal flowers of pristine white; revered symbol of Easter and formal ceremonies.

  • Group Interdivisional Hybrids (OT, LA, LO)

    Revolutionary interspecific crosses combining vigor, disease resistance, giant blooms, and versatile color palettes.

Genus

Tulips (Tulipa) Tulipa

Tunicated bulbous perennial
Topic Library ›

Brown-tunicated bulbs, glaucous basal leaves, erect cup-shaped blooms with strong phototropism and postharvest elongation.

Wild Species & Ancestors
5
  • Species T. gesneriana · Didier's tulip (Garden tulip)

    Principal ancestor of modern commercial garden tulips

    Central Asian wild tulip refined in Ottoman gardens; ignited 17th-century 'Tulip Mania'.

  • Species T. fosteriana · Foster's tulip

    Darwin hybrid ancestor · Massive cup flowers and luminous red

    Central Asian species with gigantic flame-red blooms opening wide in full sun; created Darwin Hybrids when crossed with Gesneriana.

  • Species T. greigii · Greig's tulip

    Botanical tulip · Distinctive purple-mottled leaves and bicolored blooms

    Kazakhstan native celebrated for striking maroon-striped foliage and large chalice-like blooms with pointed petals.

  • Species T. kaufmanniana · Waterlily tulip

    Waterlily-form early tulip · Flat open sunburst flowers

    Turkestan native that opens flat like a waterlily in sunny conditions; extremely early blooming with bi-colored rings.

  • Species T. sylvestris · Wild woodland tulip

    European wild tulip · Graceful nodding fragrant yellow stars

    Native across Europe; delicate nodding lemon-yellow blooms that open into fragrant stars; naturalizes effortlessly.

Cultivar & Commercial Groups
6
  • Group Triumph Tulips (Div. 3)

    Cross of Single Early × Darwin; sturdy weatherproof stems; global backbone of cut-flower tulip market.

  • Group Darwin Hybrid Tulips (Div. 4)

    Huge pyramid-shaped blooms with vibrant luminous colors; unbeatable presence in spring designs.

  • Group Parrot Tulips (Div. 10)

    Deeply feathered, ruffled, and twisted petals with exotic markings; full of dramatic baroque flair.

  • Group Lily-flowered Tulips (Div. 6)

    Pointed petals reflexed outwards with a slender graceful waist, swaying elegantly in light arrangements.

  • Group Double Late / Peony Tulips (Div. 11)

    Lush multi-layered petals resembling peonies (10–12 cm wide); top focal flowers in romantic bridal designs.

  • Group Fringed Tulips (Div. 7)

    Petals edged with crystalline, frost-like delicate fringes; exquisite tactile interest in fine floristry.

Family

Daisy / Aster family Asteraceae

Order Asterales
1 genera

Largest eudicot family; capitulum inflorescences composed of outer ray florets and inner disc florets; syngenesious anthers.

Genus

Chrysanthemums Chrysanthemum

Perennial herb or subshrub
Topic Library › Botanical Page ›

Pinnatifid aromatic leaves, multi-layered involucral bracts, exceptionally long vase life and transport endurance.

Wild Species & Ancestors
3
  • Species C. indicum · Indian chrysanthemum

    Ancestral species · Origin of yellow pigments and hardiness

    Native to temperate Asia; small yellow heads rich in medicinal properties, conferring strong disease resistance.

  • Species C. vestitum · Woolly-coated chrysanthemum

    Ancestral species · Source of white ray florets and cold tolerance

    Native to Central China; covered with dense white woolly hair beneath, bearing pure white ray florets.

  • Species C. lavandulifolium · Lavender-leaved chrysanthemum

    Ancestral species · Source of aromatic volatile oils and branching

    Mountain wild species with deeply dissected aromatic leaves, conferring branching vigor and resilience.

Cultivar & Commercial Groups
3
  • Group Spray Chrysanthemums

    Multiple natural florets per stem, lasting 2–3 weeks in water; the most durable filler in commercial floristry.

  • Group Disbud Chrysanthemums (Pompon / Spider / Incurved)

    Disbudded solitary giant blooms (10–18 cm) in spherical pompon, spidery quilled, or incurved formal shapes.

  • Group Traditional Chinese Chrysanthemum Petal Classification

    Classical Chinese classification into Flat, Spoon, Tubular, Feather, and Dragon-claw petal forms.

Family

Hydrangea family Hydrangeaceae

Order Cornales
1 genera

Shrubs or climbers with opposite leaves, showy sterile decorative flowers with enlarged petaloid sepals sensitive to soil pH and aluminum.

Genus

Hydrangeas Hydrangea

Deciduous shrub
Topic Library › Botanical Page ›

Large serrated leaves, ball-shaped mophead or flat lacecap flower clusters providing supreme floral volume.

Wild Species & Ancestors
4
  • Species H. macrophylla · Bigleaf hydrangea (French hydrangea)

    Mainstay of cut flower and garden hydrangeas

    Broad glossy foliage supporting large globe or lacecap clusters in blue, pink, lavender, and white.

  • Species H. serrata · Mountain hydrangea

    Cold-hardy mountain lacecap classic

    Native to mountain forests of Japan; refined delicate habit with exquisite lacecap florets, highly cold-hardy.

  • Species H. paniculata · Panicle hydrangea

    Sun-tolerant cone-flower woody shrub

    Large conical flower panicles turning from lime-white to pink and antique brick-red; thrives in full sun and down to -30°C.

  • Species H. arborescens · Smooth hydrangea

    North American new-wood blooming champion

    Eastern North American native; iconic 'Annabelle' cultivar produces enormous white globes on current season's stems.

Cultivar & Commercial Groups
3
  • Group Mophead / Hortensia Hydrangeas

    Dense spherical clusters comprised almost entirely of sterile florets; premier centerpiece for weddings.

  • Group Lacecap Hydrangeas

    Center of tiny fertile flowers surrounded by a halo of prominent sterile florets; airy, graceful, natural.

  • Group Antique Autumn Hydrangeas

    Naturally aged on the plant to shades of olive, burgundy, and dusty rose; long-lasting and dryable.

Family

Carnation / Pink family Caryophyllaceae

Order Caryophyllales
1 genera

Herbaceous plants with swollen nodes, opposite leaves, tubular calyx, and clawed fringed petals; high postharvest durability.

Genus

Carnations & Pinks (Dianthus) Dianthus

Herbaceous perennial or annual
Topic Library ›

Tubular calyx with imbricate bracts, clawed fringed petals with clove scent; highly durable in postharvest cold chain.

Wild Species & Ancestors
4
  • Species D. caryophyllus · Clove pink (Carnation)

    Global cut flower pillar · Ancestor of commercial carnations

    Mediterranean aromatic plant with clove scent; developed over centuries into standard and spray carnations.

  • Species D. barbatus · Sweet William

    Dense corymbose floral filler

    Dense flat-topped terminal clusters with bearded bracts and concentric zoned colorful rings.

  • Species D. chinensis · China pink (Rainbow pink)

    East Asian classical perennial · Wild elegance

    Native to China and East Asia; solitary or clustered fringed petals with contrasting eye zones; hardy cottage garden favorite.

  • Species D. superbus · Large pink (Superb pink)

    Airy fringed classic · Ethereal floating texture

    Eurasian wildflower with petals shredded into fine feathery threads; delicate lilac-pink blooms with sweet fragrance.

Cultivar & Commercial Groups
4
  • Group Standard Carnations (Sim-type)

    Single large bloom (7–10 cm) per stem; compact, ruffled, and incredibly long-lasting in formal tributes.

  • Group Spray / Miniature Carnations

    Natural branches bearing 4–8 blossoms per stem; versatile and durable filler for mixed bouquets.

  • Group Picotee & Flake Carnations (Chabaud-type)

    Petals with contrasting margins or speckled flakes with intense clove perfume; vintage European allure.

  • Group Globe Foliage Dianthus (Green Trick / Barbatus)

    Floral organs fully transformed into a dense, velvety green moss sphere; pet-friendly, zero pollen, and ultra-durable.

Historic botanical plates

208 plates from European florilegia, 1613–1912. Artists and printers transcribed from each plate's imprint; the name printed on the plate is kept and matched to the current accepted name.

Scans from the Biodiversity Heritage Library and Botanicus via Wikimedia Commons; all in the public domain. Current names checked in GBIF and Catalogue of Life, pending specialist review.

In-depth topic libraries (in Chinese)

14 systematic references by plant group — botany, cultivation, conditioning, floristry use and standards, each article cited. Currently written in Chinese.