# Floreboard (芳华绘)

> Floreboard is an AI design and operations assistant for florists and floral studios. It designs arrangements from a shop's real inventory, reviews every design against professional rules (style schools, cultural taboos, vase life, season, pet safety, holiday pricing), tracks cost and margin, deducts stock, and remembers repeat clients. Web app in English, Chinese, Japanese, Korean, French and Spanish.

The pages below are static, factual references generated from the same knowledge base the product uses. Values are typical trade ranges, reviewed 2026-10-31 (knowledge base 2026-10-31.3). Every page has a Markdown copy at its URL plus `index.md`, and a Chinese edition under `/zh/`. Japanese (`/ja/`) and Korean (`/ko/`) editions cover the flower guide and most guides. French (`/fr/`) and Spanish (`/es/`) currently cover the ten newly added A–C floral materials and their indexes; other reference pages are not yet translated.

## Product
- [Floreboard overview](https://floreboard.com/en/): Design arrangements from your stock with AI, with automatic school and cultural review, pet-safety checks, cost and margin, inventory deduction and client memory.
- [How Floreboard works](https://floreboard.com/en/features/): How florists use Floreboard: enter stock, describe the order, generate a costed design, have it reviewed automatically, share it with the client and make it from a production sheet that deducts inventory.
- [Pricing](https://floreboard.com/en/pricing/): 30 free credits on sign-up; a design costs 1 credit and a default 1K preview image 5. Credit packs from $4.99; Pro plans $9.90 / $89.00.
- [Floreboard FAQ](https://floreboard.com/en/faq/): Answers to 16 common questions about Floreboard, the AI design and operations assistant for florists: what it does, how designs are reviewed, credits and pricing, languages and data.
- [Open the app](https://floreboard.com/): sign up free (30 credits; a design costs 1 credit, a preview image 5)

## Flower guide
- [Flower guide (157 flowers)](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/): Quick reference for 157 cut flowers, branches and foliage: botanical name, role, vase life, season, fragrance and pet toxicity — the same data Floreboard uses to review arrangements.
- One page per flower at https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/{slug}/ — botanical name, family, role, vase life, season, fragrance, colours, meaning, handling, suitability, substitutes and holiday price surges. Slugs: rose, sunflower, hydrangea, lily, tulip, carnation, gerbera, lisianthus, gypsophila, chamomile, strelitzia, orchid, peony, herbaceous-peony, chrysanthemum, narcissus, plum, wintersweet, acacia, astrantia, amaranthus, amaryllis, moluccella, bupleurum, curcuma, campanula, crocosmia, cherry, peach, crabapple, camellia, iris, delphinium, anemone, eucalyptus, monstera, bamboo, pine, maple, redbean, calla, freesia, hyacinth, lilyvalley, stock, gomphrena, statice, gardenia, jasmine, lavender, zinnia, dahlia, anthurium, celosia, dendrobium, lotus, waterlily, craspedia, queenannes, protea, waxflower, clematis, lupin, snapdragon, poppy, salvia, daisy, cosmos, calendula, marigold, cornflower, aster, magnolia, wisteria, forsythia, willow, pussywillow, dogwood, azalea, spiraea, osmanthus, nandina, persimmon, lotuspod, asparagus, palm, ivy, fatsia, dustymiller, holly, cotton, wheat, ranunculus, trachelium, alstroemeria, gladiolus, sweetpea, scabiosa, hellebore, agapanthus, allium, astilbe, eryngium, leucospermum, kangaroopaw, heliconia, tuberose, solidago, ornithogalum, muscari, bouvardia, veronica, leucadendron, banksia, lilac, viburnum, hypericum, salal, leatherleaf, aspidistra, pittosporum, myrtle, curlywillow, juniper, ginkgo, pear, purpleleafplum, photinia, lonicera, sorbaria, loquat, hosta, typha, irislactea, lythrum, physostegia, acorus, artemisia, hollyhock, pomegranate, hemerocallis, lycoris, begonia, pyracantha, buddhahand, lingzhi, rohdea, cercis, winterjasmine, daphne, kerria, crapemyrtle, celastrus, bougainvillea, sagittaria, thalia, cordyline

## Botanical reference
- [Reference library](https://floreboard.com/en/library/): Reference material for florists and plant lovers: a flower guide for quick answers, historic botanical plates, and in-depth libraries by plant group. Every page cites its sources.
- Plant reference pages: accepted name, place of publication, synonyms, native range and accepted species checked against WCVP, with the cited sources and a dated public-domain plate. English and Chinese (`/zh/plants/…`):
- [Phalaenopsis Blume — moth orchids](https://floreboard.com/en/plants/phalaenopsis/): Phalaenopsis Blume (1825): classification, the 93 species accepted by WCVP, genera now included, native range and 11 historic plates, with sources.
- [Phalaenopsis amabilis (L.) Blume — moon orchid](https://floreboard.com/en/plants/phalaenopsis-amabilis/): Phalaenopsis amabilis (L.) Blume: basionym Epidendrum amabile L. (1753), 3 subspecies and their synonyms, native range, and the names on 6 historic plates matched to current names, with sources.
- [Rosa L. — roses](https://floreboard.com/en/plants/rosa/): Rosa L. (1753): how to recognise the genus, the 422 species accepted by WCVP, generic names now included, native range and 8 historic plates, with sources.
- [Rosa chinensis Jacq. — China rose](https://floreboard.com/en/plants/rosa-chinensis/): Rosa chinensis Jacq.: source of repeat flowering, synonyms and misapplied names in WCVP, native and introduced range, and the names on 2 historic plates matched to current names, with sources.
- [Rosa rugosa Thunb. — rugosa rose](https://floreboard.com/en/plants/rosa-rugosa/): Rosa rugosa Thunb.: description, synonyms in WCVP, native and introduced range, and the names on 3 historic plates matched to current names, with sources.
- [Chrysanthemum L. — chrysanthemums](https://floreboard.com/en/plants/chrysanthemum/): Chrysanthemum L. (1753): the name, the 41 species accepted by WCVP, what became of Dendranthema, native range and 6 historic plates, with sources.
- [Chrysanthemum × morifolium (Ramat.) Hemsl. — florist’s chrysanthemum](https://floreboard.com/en/plants/chrysanthemum-morifolium/): Chrysanthemum × morifolium (Ramat.) Hemsl.: basionym Matricaria × morifolia Ramat. (1792), synonyms under Dendranthema and Pyrethrum, the misapplied name C. indicum, and the names on 6 historic plates matched to current names, with sources.
- [Hydrangea Gronov. ex L. — hydrangeas](https://floreboard.com/en/plants/hydrangea/): Hydrangea (1753): the 103 species accepted by WCVP, the genera such as Dichroa and Schizophragma now included, native range and 6 historic plates, with sources.
- [Hydrangea macrophylla (Thunb.) Ser. — bigleaf hydrangea](https://floreboard.com/en/plants/hydrangea-macrophylla/): Hydrangea macrophylla (Thunb.) Ser.: basionym Viburnum macrophyllum Thunb. (1784), more than 70 synonyms including Hortensia, its Japanese native range, and the names on 4 historic plates matched to current names, with sources.
- [Cymbidium Sw. — boat orchids](https://floreboard.com/en/plants/cymbidium/): Cymbidium Sw. (1799): classification, the 118 species accepted by WCVP, genera now included, native range and garden hybrids, with sources.
- [Cymbidium faberi Rolfe — Faber’s cymbidium](https://floreboard.com/en/plants/cymbidium-faberi/): Cymbidium faberi Rolfe (1896): classic Chinese orchid, native distribution in WCVP, synonyms and historical literature, with sources.
- [Lilium Tourn. ex L. — lilies](https://floreboard.com/en/plants/lilium/): Lilium Tourn. ex L. (1753): classification, the 138 species accepted by WCVP, native range, commercial hybrid divisions and postharvest care, with sources.
- [Helianthus L. — sunflowers](https://floreboard.com/en/plants/helianthus/): Helianthus L. (1753): diagnostic characters, the 68 species accepted by WCVP and their native range, and harvest, storage and vase care for cut sunflowers (H. annuus), with sources.
- [Dahlia Cav. — dahlias](https://floreboard.com/en/plants/dahlia/): Dahlia Cav. (1791): native from Mexico to Colombia, the 43 species accepted by WCVP and their range; garden flower-form groups, overwintering tubers, and short storage, hydration and botrytis in the cut flower, with sources.
- [Zantedeschia Spreng. — calla lilies and arum lilies](https://floreboard.com/en/plants/zantedeschia/): Zantedeschia Spreng. (1826): endemic to Africa, the 10 species accepted by WCVP and their range; white arum and coloured callas, spathe and spadix, and harvest, handling and sap in the cut flower, with sources.
- [Ranunculus L. — buttercups](https://floreboard.com/en/plants/ranunculus/): Ranunculus L. (1753): the 1827 species accepted by WCVP, their range and the genus characters; origin, tuber planting, ethylene sensitivity and botrytis in the cut-flower Persian buttercup, R. asiaticus, with sources.
- [Narcissus L. — daffodils](https://floreboard.com/en/plants/narcissus/): Narcissus L. (1753): the 179 species accepted by WCVP and their native range, the identity of the Chinese sacred lily, the 13 horticultural divisions, and why cut daffodils go in their own bucket, with sources.
- [Alstroemeria L. — alstroemerias (Peruvian lilies)](https://floreboard.com/en/plants/alstroemeria/): Alstroemeria L. (1762): native to South America, the 138 species accepted by WCVP and their range; how to pick garden stems, and harvest stage, ethylene sensitivity and leaf yellowing in the cut flower, with sources.
- [Dendrobium Sw. — dendrobium orchids](https://floreboard.com/en/plants/dendrobium/): Dendrobium Sw. (1799): the second-largest orchid genus, the 1623 species accepted by WCVP and their range; growing the phalaenopsis-type hybrids, and storage temperature, ethylene and water stress in the cut flower, with sources.
- [Oncidium Sw. — oncidiums](https://floreboard.com/en/plants/oncidium/): Oncidium Sw. (1800): a tropical American orchid genus, the 373 species accepted by WCVP and their range; the wider genus after Odontoglossum and others were merged into it, and light, temperature, watering and humidity in cultivation, with sources.
- [Vanda R.Br. — vandas](https://floreboard.com/en/plants/vanda/): Vanda R.Br. (1821): monopodial epiphytic orchids, the 97 species accepted by WCVP and their range; the wider genus after Neofinetia and Ascocentrum were merged in, and light, temperature, watering and basket culture, with sources.
- [Prunus L. — cherries, plums, peaches and almonds](https://floreboard.com/en/plants/prunus/): Prunus L. (1753): cherries, plums, peaches and apricots in one genus, the 417 species accepted by WCVP and their range; genus characters, ornamental cherry flowers and planting, and the cyanogenic glycosides in stems, leaves and seeds, with sources.
- [Hippeastrum Herb. — hippeastrums (amaryllis)](https://floreboard.com/en/plants/hippeastrum/): Hippeastrum Herb. (1821): sold as “amaryllis” but distinct from the South African genus Amaryllis; the 119 species accepted by WCVP and their range, potting and timing, and toxicity, with sources.
- [Gladiolus Tourn. ex L. — gladioli](https://floreboard.com/en/plants/gladiolus/): Gladiolus Tourn. ex L. (1753): the 305 species accepted by WCVP and their range, corms and flower spikes; growing and cutting garden hybrids, and upright storage, fluoride sensitivity and ethylene in the cut flower, with sources.
- [Freesia Eckl. ex Klatt — freesias](https://floreboard.com/en/plants/freesia/): Freesia Eckl. ex Klatt (1866): native from East to southern Africa, the 17 species accepted by WCVP and their range; corms, harvest stage, and desiccation, fluoride and ethylene in the cut flower, with sources.
- [Iris Tourn. ex L. — irises](https://floreboard.com/en/plants/iris/): Iris Tourn. ex L. (1753): the 348 species accepted by WCVP and their range, now including Belamcanda; bulb irises and Dutch iris in the garden, and pencil-stage harvest and toxicity in the cut flower, with sources.
- [Hyacinthus Tourn. ex L. — hyacinths](https://floreboard.com/en/plants/hyacinthus/): Hyacinthus Tourn. ex L. (1753): WCVP accepts only 3 species, all from western Asia; the wild hyacinth’s range, prepared bulbs and forcing in water indoors, and toxicity to pets, with sources.
- [Anemone L. — anemones](https://floreboard.com/en/plants/anemone/): Anemone L. (1753): the 113 species accepted by WCVP and their range, and why the “petals” are sepals; origin, planting, harvest stage and ethylene sensitivity of the cut-flower poppy anemone, with sources.
- [Delphinium Tourn. ex L. — delphiniums and larkspurs](https://floreboard.com/en/plants/delphinium/): Delphinium L. (1753): now including the larkspurs (Consolida), the 546 species accepted by WCVP and their range; the spurred flowers, garden groups, cut-flower harvest and ethylene shattering, and toxicity, with sources.
- [Solidago L. — goldenrods](https://floreboard.com/en/plants/solidago/): Solidago L. (1753): the 151 species accepted by WCVP and their range, including Canada goldenrod introduced in China; harvest stage, heavy water uptake and leaf yellowing in the cut flower, with sources.
- [Protea L. — proteas](https://floreboard.com/en/plants/protea/): Protea L. (1771): the 107 species accepted by WCVP and their range, the name and the ancient protea family; the king protea’s flower head, and why cut proteas dislike deep chilling and blacken their leaves, with sources.
- [Leucadendron R.Br. — conebushes](https://floreboard.com/en/plants/leucadendron/): Leucadendron R.Br. (1810): endemic to South Africa, the 85 species accepted by WCVP and their range; separate male and female plants, woody female cones, the silver tree behind the name, and the parents of the cut-foliage cultivar ‘Safari Sunset’, with sources.
- [Monstera Adans. — monsteras](https://floreboard.com/en/plants/monstera/): Monstera Adans. (1763): the 73 species accepted by WCVP and their range, perforated leaves and aerial roots; where the Swiss cheese plant comes from, light, temperature and watering indoors, and toxicity, with sources.
- [Spathiphyllum Schott — peace lilies](https://floreboard.com/en/plants/spathiphyllum/): Spathiphyllum Schott (1832): split between the Americas and Malesia, the 76 species accepted by WCVP; the white spathe, and light, temperature, watering and fluoride sensitivity indoors, and toxicity to pets, with sources.
- [Epipremnum Schott — pothos and other epipremnums](https://floreboard.com/en/plants/epipremnum/): Epipremnum Schott (1857): the 15 species accepted by WCVP and their range; pothos, E. aureum, native to the Society Islands and how it got its name, light and watering indoors, and toxicity to pets, with sources.
- [Philodendron Schott — philodendrons](https://floreboard.com/en/plants/philodendron/): Philodendron Schott (1829): a large aroid genus, the 631 species accepted by WCVP and their range; climbing and self-heading forms, resin-secreting inflorescences, and light, temperature and watering indoors, and irritant sap, with sources.
- [Camellia L. — camellias](https://floreboard.com/en/plants/camellia/): Camellia L. (1753): tea and camellias in one genus, the 245 species accepted by WCVP and their range; where the camellia comes from, flowering groups, acid soil and bud drop, and its safety for pets, with sources.
- [Rhododendron L. — rhododendrons and azaleas](https://floreboard.com/en/plants/rhododendron/): Rhododendron L. (1753): the 1234 species accepted by WCVP and their range, rhododendrons and azaleas alike; genus characters, acid soil and rainwater, when flower buds form, and toxicity to pets, with sources.
- [Chimonanthus Lindl. — wintersweets](https://floreboard.com/en/plants/chimonanthus/): Chimonanthus Lindl. (1819): a small genus endemic to China, of which WCVP accepts just 6 species; how wintersweet got its name, its scented winter flowers, and growing it in the garden, with sources.
- [Salix L. — willows](https://floreboard.com/en/plants/salix/): Salix L. (1753): the 698 species accepted by WCVP, many of them natural hybrids; where weeping willow and the cut pussy willow come from, catkins, pollarding and cuttings, with sources.
- [Acacia Mill. — wattles](https://floreboard.com/en/plants/acacia/): Acacia Mill. (1754): the 1092 species accepted by WCVP and their range, with Vachellia and Senegalia now split off; phyllodes and bipinnate leaves, and the origin and growing of florists’ mimosa, A. dealbata, with sources.
- [Eucalyptus L'Hér. — eucalypts](https://floreboard.com/en/plants/eucalyptus/): Eucalyptus L’Hér. (1789): the 816 species accepted by WCVP and their range; juvenile versus adult leaves, the operculum, where florists’ round-leaved eucalyptus comes from, storage, ethylene and drying, and toxicity to pets, with sources.
- [Strelitzia Banks — bird-of-paradise flowers](https://floreboard.com/en/plants/strelitzia/): Strelitzia Banks (1788): endemic to southern Africa, the 6 species accepted by WCVP; the bird-of-paradise’s inflorescence, name and wild range, storage temperature, opening and hydration of the cut flower, and toxicity to pets, with sources.
- [Antirrhinum L. — snapdragons](https://floreboard.com/en/plants/antirrhinum/): Antirrhinum L. (1753): native to the Mediterranean, the 35 species accepted by WCVP and their range; harvest stage, ethylene shattering and geotropic bending in the cut snapdragon, with sources.
- [Matthiola W.T.Aiton — stocks](https://floreboard.com/en/plants/matthiola/): Matthiola W.T.Aiton (1812): the 54 species accepted by WCVP and their range, and genus characters; harvest stage, ethylene sensitivity, fouled water and the clove-like scent of the cut stock, with sources.
- [Agapanthus L'Hér. — African lilies](https://floreboard.com/en/plants/agapanthus/): Agapanthus L’Hér. (1788): native to southern Africa, the 8 species accepted by WCVP and their range; how evergreen and deciduous types differ in hardiness, and when to buy, how cold to store, vase life and ethylene-induced floret drop of the cut flower, with sources.
- [Limonium Mill. — sea lavenders](https://floreboard.com/en/plants/limonium/): Limonium Mill. (1754): the 626 species accepted by WCVP and their range, with florists’ statice, L. sinuatum, and the sea-lavender fillers; the coloured part is a papery calyx, not petals; harvest, storage, vase life, grey mould and odour of the cut flower, and hang-drying, with sources.
- [Nelumbo Adans. — lotuses](https://floreboard.com/en/plants/nelumbo/): Nelumbo Adans. (1763): the 2 species accepted by WCVP — the Asian sacred lotus N. nucifera and the American N. lutea, the only genus of its family; leaf, flower and receptacle (the lotus pod), flowering season and wild range, and handling fresh and dried pods as florists’ material, with sources.
- [Asparagus Tourn. ex L. — asparagus](https://floreboard.com/en/plants/asparagus/): Asparagus (Linnaeus 1753): the 211 species accepted by WCVP and their range; the green “leaves” are cladodes and the true leaves are scales; asparagus fern, A. setaceus, comes from southern Africa and is not a fern; storage, vase life, dehydration and common diseases of the cut foliage, and toxicity to pets, with sources.
- [Dracaena Vand. ex L. — dragon trees](https://floreboard.com/en/plants/dracaena/): Dracaena (1767): the 225 species accepted by WCVP and their range; a 2018 molecular study merged the snake plants, Sansevieria, into the genus, so the snake plant is now D. trifasciata; lucky bamboo, D. sanderiana, comes from west-central Africa and in water culture suffers from fluoride and chlorine; the genus is toxic to cats and dogs, with sources.
- [Nephrolepis Schott — sword ferns](https://floreboard.com/en/plants/nephrolepis/): Nephrolepis Schott (1834): the 35 species accepted by WCVP and their range; stolons and tubers, pinnae and sori, and the fishbone fern N. cordifolia in China; the florists’ “sword fern” and “leatherleaf” are often other genera; listed by the ASPCA as non-toxic to cats and dogs, with sources.
- [Clivia Lindl. — clivias](https://floreboard.com/en/plants/clivia/): Clivia Lindl. (1828): endemic to South Africa, the 8 species accepted by WCVP, including C. miniata and C. nobilis; pot plants need a cool, fairly dry winter rest at about 10 °C to flower; the plant contains lycorine and is toxic to cats and dogs, with sources.
- [Pachira Aubl. — pachiras](https://floreboard.com/en/plants/pachira/): Pachira Aubl. (1775): native to tropical America, the 54 species accepted by WCVP; the money tree is usually labelled P. aquatica, while WCVP also keeps P. glabra of south-eastern Brazil; palmate leaves, petals up to 15 cm and woody capsules, the origin of braided pot plants, care, and pet safety, with sources.
- [Guzmania Ruiz & Pav. — guzmanias](https://floreboard.com/en/plants/guzmania/): Guzmania Ruiz & Pav. (1802): a bromeliad genus of Florida to tropical America, the 217 species accepted by WCVP; the scarlet star, G. lingulata, is mostly epiphytic and takes up water through the cups at its leaf bases, which should be flushed regularly; and bromeliads and pets, with sources.
- [Cyclamen L. — cyclamens](https://floreboard.com/en/plants/cyclamen/): Cyclamen L. (1753): native from Europe to Iran and north-eastern Somalia, the 31 species accepted by WCVP; florist’s cyclamen, C. persicum, is a tuberous geophyte of the eastern Mediterranean that likes it cool, hates water on the tuber and goes dormant in summer after flowering; the tubers contain saponins and are toxic to cats and dogs, with sources.
- [Kalanchoe Adans. — kalanchoes](https://floreboard.com/en/plants/kalanchoe/): Kalanchoe Adans. (1763): the 203 species accepted by WCVP across the Old World tropics and subtropics, with Bryophyllum now included; flaming Katy, K. blossfeldiana, comes from north-eastern Madagascar, was brought into cultivation by Blossfeld in 1932 and needs about six weeks of long nights to set buds; it contains bufadienolides and is toxic to cats and dogs, with sources.
- [Euphorbia L. — spurges](https://floreboard.com/en/plants/euphorbia/): Euphorbia L. (1753): a cosmopolitan giant genus, the 2123 species accepted by WCVP; all parts carry white latex and the “flower” is a cyathium; the poinsettia, E. pulcherrima, comes from Mexico to Guatemala, its red parts are bracts, and it colours after about 14 hours of darkness a night; the sap is irritant but its toxicity is overrated, with sources.
- [Ficus Tourn. ex L. — figs](https://floreboard.com/en/plants/ficus/): Ficus (Linnaeus 1753): the 893 species accepted by WCVP across the tropics and subtropics; the “fruit” is a syconium with the flowers inside, pollinated by specialised fig wasps; the origins and characters of the rubber plant, fiddle-leaf fig, weeping fig and Chinese banyan grown indoors, and toxicity to pets, with sources.
- [Historic botanical plates](https://floreboard.com/en/library/#plates): 208 public-domain plates (1613–1912), each with the name printed on it, the current accepted name, the artist and engraver as signed, and a link to the original scan.
- Topic libraries (in Chinese, with cited sources: botany, postharvest handling, growing, troubleshooting, standards and historic plates): [Moth orchid (Phalaenopsis) 蝴蝶兰](https://floreboard.com/phalaenopsis/) · [Cymbidium hybrids 大花蕙兰](https://floreboard.com/cymbidium/) · [Cymbidium faberi (Chinese orchid) 蕙兰（国兰）](https://floreboard.com/huilan/) · [Roses (Rosa) 月季](https://floreboard.com/rose/) · [Chrysanthemums 菊花](https://floreboard.com/chrysanthemum/) · [Hydrangeas 绣球](https://floreboard.com/hydrangea/) · [Lilies (Lilium) 百合](https://floreboard.com/lily/) · [Carnations (Dianthus) 康乃馨](https://floreboard.com/carnation/) · [Tulips (Tulipa) 郁金香](https://floreboard.com/tulip/) · [Gerberas (Gerbera) 非洲菊](https://floreboard.com/gerbera/) · [Baby's breath (Gypsophila) 满天星](https://floreboard.com/gypsophila/) · [Peonies (Paeonia) 芍药](https://floreboard.com/peony/) · [Lisianthus (Eustoma) 洋桔梗](https://floreboard.com/eustoma/) · [Anthurium (Anthurium) 红掌](https://floreboard.com/anthurium/)
- [Work plan and progress (中文)](https://floreboard.com/zh/library/plan/): which families and genera are covered and how far each has got.

## Guides: Seasons, stock and price
- [Seasonal flower chart](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/seasonal-flowers/): Which cut flowers, branches and foliage are in season in spring, summer, autumn and winter, plus year-round staples — for seasonal buying and design.
- [Holiday flower price calendar](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/holiday-flower-prices/): A florist's stocking calendar: which flowers rise in price before each holiday, typical surges and how far ahead to stock up, with 2026–2028 dates.
- [How florists price arrangements: cost, markup and margin](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/florist-pricing-and-margin/): How to price a flower arrangement: the four numbers that matter, a markup-to-margin table, two checks to run on every quote, and a worked example of what a holiday price surge does to your margin.
- [Flower arrangement checklist before delivery](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/arrangement-checklist/): 23 checks professional florists run before delivery: balance, vase life, season, cultural taboos, pet safety, style rules, stock and margin — the same rules Floreboard applies automatically.

## Guides: Choosing flowers
- [Cut flower vase life chart](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/flower-vase-life/): Common cut flowers ranked by vase life, to help florists combine stems and plan delivery times.
- [Longest-lasting cut flowers](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/long-lasting-flowers/): 18 cut flowers that typically last ten days or more in a vase, with season, fragrance and pet safety — for weekly contract flowers, gifts that travel and bouquets meant to last.
- [Fragrant cut flowers](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/fragrant-flowers/): 19 strongly scented cut flowers and branches with their seasons and vase life, the lightly scented alternatives, and where fragrance is welcome or best avoided.
- [Unscented and low-pollen flowers](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/unscented-flowers/): 58 cut flowers with little or no scent and no heavy pollen — for scent-sensitive clients, dining tables and hospitals — with vase life, season and pet safety, plus what to avoid.
- [Flowers by colour](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/flowers-by-color/): Find cut flowers by colour. 88 flowers sorted into eight colour families, each with season, vase life, fragrance and pet safety.
- [Foliage and branches for arrangements](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/foliage-and-branches/): 20 foliages and 35 branches used in floristry, with vase life, season, pet safety and a handling note for each — plus how to split, force and deliver flowering branches.
- [Flowers that dry well](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/flowers-for-drying/): 29 cut flowers, branches and textures that keep their shape and colour when dried, with three drying methods and the flowers that do not dry at all.
- [Commonly confused flowers](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/commonly-confused-flowers/): Peony or ranunculus? Calla or lily? Stock or violet? The flowers florists and clients most often mix up, how to tell them apart, and why the difference matters for pets, taboos and vase life.

## Guides: Occasions and customs
- [Flowers by occasion](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/flowers-by-occasion/): A one-page reference for choosing flowers by occasion — romance, Mother's Day, birthdays, weddings, openings, graduation, hospital visits, sympathy and Lunar New Year — with what to avoid for each.
- [Wedding flowers by season](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/wedding-flowers/): Choosing wedding and bridal flowers: long-lasting, pollen-free choices by season, stems that need extra care, and taboos for Chinese, Japanese and Korean weddings.
- [Birthday flowers](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/birthday-flowers/): Choosing birthday flowers: long-lasting focal flowers for each season, birth month flowers, and the pet, scent and cultural checks to run before designing.
- [Flowers for a business opening](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/business-opening-flowers/): What to send for a shop or business opening: auspicious flowers and colours in Chinese practice, long-lasting stems for opening stands, and the taboos to avoid.
- [Flowers for a hospital visit: what to send and avoid](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/hospital-flowers/): What to send to a patient and what to avoid: strong scents, heavy pollen, potted plants in Chinese custom, chrysanthemum and number taboos, and good choices.
- [Funeral and sympathy flowers: customs by culture](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/funeral-flowers/): Which flowers and colours suit funerals and condolences in China, Japan, Korea, Europe and North America — and what to avoid.
- [How many flowers to give: meanings and taboos by culture](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/flower-numbers/): What 1, 3, 9, 11, 12 or 99 flowers mean, and number taboos across cultures: 4 in East Asia, 9 in Japan, even numbers in Russia and Eastern Europe.
- [Flower colour meanings across cultures](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/flower-color-meanings/): What flower colours mean in Western, Chinese, Japanese, Korean and other traditions — and the colours to avoid for weddings, funerals, hospital visits and gifts abroad.
- [Flower meanings: the language of flowers](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/flower-meanings/): The popular meanings of 83 cut flowers and branches — Western flower language alongside Chinese and Japanese symbolism — with season and colours for each.
- [Birth month flowers](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/birth-month-flowers/): The birth flowers for all twelve months in the British and American tradition, with each flower's season, pet safety and tips for working it into a birthday bouquet.
- [Wedding anniversary flowers by year](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/anniversary-flowers/): The traditional flower for each wedding anniversary from the 1st to the 50th, with season, vase life and pet safety, and what to do when the flower is out of season.

## Guides: Craft and safety
- [Cut flower care and conditioning guide](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/cut-flower-care/): How florists condition cut flowers so they last: seven steps for every stem, plus the flowers that need shallow water, searing, splitting, no fridge or no fruit nearby.
- [Pet-safe flowers for cats and dogs](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/pet-safe-flowers/): Before sending flowers to a home with pets: common cut flowers that are highly toxic to cats or mildly toxic to cats and dogs, and what florists can do.
- [Floral design styles compared](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/floral-design-styles/): Key traits of the main Japanese, Chinese and European floral design styles, and the typical stem counts and number of materials for each.
- [Floristry glossary](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/floristry-glossary/): 31 floristry terms explained in plain language, each with its Chinese equivalent: design roles, ikebana vocabulary, mechanics, conditioning and pricing.

## By season, holiday and colour
- [Spring flowers in season](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/seasonal-flowers/spring/)
- [Summer flowers in season](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/seasonal-flowers/summer/)
- [Autumn flowers in season](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/seasonal-flowers/autumn/)
- [Winter flowers in season](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/seasonal-flowers/winter/)
- [Valentine's Day: florist stocking guide (Worldwide; 2–3× wholesale, stock up 21 days ahead)](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/holidays/valentines-day/)
- [Chinese New Year: florist stocking guide (Chinese mainland; 1.5–3× wholesale, stock up 30 days ahead)](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/holidays/chinese-new-year/)
- [Women's Day: florist stocking guide (Chinese mainland; 1.2–1.5× wholesale, stock up 14 days ahead)](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/holidays/womens-day/)
- [White Day: florist stocking guide (Japan, Korea; 1.2–1.5× wholesale, stock up 14 days ahead)](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/holidays/white-day/)
- [Qingming: florist stocking guide (Chinese mainland; 1.5–2× wholesale, stock up 14 days ahead)](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/holidays/qingming/)
- [Mother's Day: florist stocking guide (Chinese mainland, United States, Japan; 1.5–2.5× wholesale, stock up 21 days ahead)](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/holidays/mothers-day/)
- [Parents' Day: florist stocking guide (Korea; 1.5–2.5× wholesale, stock up 21 days ahead)](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/holidays/korean-parents-day/)
- [520 (May 20): florist stocking guide (Chinese mainland; 1.5–2× wholesale, stock up 14 days ahead)](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/holidays/520/)
- [Qixi: florist stocking guide (Chinese mainland; 1.5–2.5× wholesale, stock up 21 days ahead)](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/holidays/qixi/)
- [Teachers' Day: florist stocking guide (Chinese mainland; 1.2–1.5× wholesale, stock up 14 days ahead)](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/holidays/chinese-teachers-day/)
- [Christmas: florist stocking guide (Worldwide; 1.2–1.6× wholesale, stock up 30 days ahead)](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/holidays/christmas/)
- [Red flowers](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/flowers-by-color/red/)
- [Pink flowers](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/flowers-by-color/pink/)
- [White flowers](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/flowers-by-color/white/)
- [Yellow flowers](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/flowers-by-color/yellow/)
- [Orange flowers](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/flowers-by-color/orange/)
- [Purple flowers](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/flowers-by-color/purple/)
- [Blue flowers](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/flowers-by-color/blue/)
- [Green flowers](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/flowers-by-color/green/)

## Data
- [About our data](https://floreboard.com/en/about/): Where the Floreboard flower guide gets its figures, what each one means and where it stops being reliable — plus downloadable data for 157 flowers and 11 holidays.
- [flowers.csv](https://floreboard.com/data/flowers.csv) · [flowers.json](https://floreboard.com/data/flowers.json): the full flower table
- [holidays.json](https://floreboard.com/data/holidays.json): holiday dates, affected flowers, price multiples and lead times
- [Everything in one file](https://floreboard.com/llms-full.txt)

## Optional
- [Chinese edition (中文版)](https://floreboard.com/zh/)
- [Japanese flower guide (花材図鑑)](https://floreboard.com/ja/flowers/)
- [Korean flower guide (꽃 도감)](https://floreboard.com/ko/flowers/)
- [French new-flower guide](https://floreboard.com/fr/flowers/)
- [Spanish new-flower guide](https://floreboard.com/es/flowers/)
- [Privacy](https://floreboard.com/privacy) · [Terms](https://floreboard.com/terms) · [Refund policy](https://floreboard.com/refund)

## Flower data (reviewed 2026-10-31)

Typical values from trade practice; actual results vary by variety, origin and conditioning. Pet toxicity follows the ASPCA toxic and non-toxic plants list; "not flagged" does not mean safe. Colours are natural hues only. Meanings are popular conventions and vary by culture.

| Flower | 中文 | Botanical name | Family | Role | Vase life | In season | Fragrance | Colours | Pets | Meaning | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Rose | 玫瑰 | Rosa × hybrida | Rosaceae | Focal flower | 5–7 days | year-round | light | red, pink, white, yellow, orange, purple, green | ASPCA: non-toxic to cats and dogs (Rosa species) | Love and romance | dries well |
| Sunflower | 向日葵 | Helianthus annuus | Asteraceae | Focal flower | 6–10 days | summer | none | yellow, orange | ASPCA: non-toxic to cats and dogs (Helianthus) | Adoration, loyalty and optimism | — |
| Hydrangea | 绣球 | Hydrangea macrophylla | Hydrangeaceae | Focal flower | 5–7 days | summer | none | blue, pink, white, purple, green | mildly toxic to cats and dogs | Gratitude and abundance | dries well |
| Lily | 百合 | Lilium | Liliaceae | Focal flower | 7–10 days | year-round | strong | white, pink, yellow, orange, red | highly toxic to cats | Purity; in Chinese weddings, "a hundred years of harmony" | heavy pollen: remove anthers; ethylene-sensitive |
| Tulip | 郁金香 | Tulipa | Liliaceae | Focal flower | 4–7 days | winter, spring | none | red, pink, white, yellow, orange, purple | mildly toxic to cats and dogs | A declaration of love | — |
| Carnation | 康乃馨 | Dianthus caryophyllus | Caryophyllaceae | Focal flower | 10–14 days | year-round | light | red, pink, white, yellow, orange, purple, green | mildly toxic to cats and dogs | A mother's love and gratitude | ethylene-sensitive |
| Gerbera daisy | 非洲菊（扶郎花） | Gerbera jamesonii | Asteraceae | Focal flower | 6–10 days | year-round | none | red, pink, white, yellow, orange | ASPCA: non-toxic to cats and dogs (Gerbera jamesonii) | Cheerfulness | — |
| Lisianthus | 洋桔梗 | Eustoma grandiflorum | Gentianaceae | Focal flower | 7–14 days | year-round | none | white, pink, purple, green | not flagged | Appreciation and sincere, unchanging love | — |
| Baby's breath | 满天星 | Gypsophila paniculata | Caryophyllaceae | Filler flower | 7–10 days | year-round | light | white, pink | not flagged | Innocence and everlasting love | ethylene-sensitive; dries well |
| Chamomile | 洋甘菊 | Matricaria chamomilla | Asteraceae | Filler flower | 5–7 days | spring, summer | light | white | not flagged | Energy in adversity | — |
| Bird of paradise | 天堂鸟（鹤望兰） | Strelitzia reginae | Strelitziaceae | Focal flower | 10–14 days | year-round | none | orange | mildly toxic to cats and dogs | Freedom and joy | — |
| Orchids (cut) | 兰花（切花） | Phalaenopsis, Cymbidium, Oncidium | Orchidaceae | Focal flower | 10–21 days | year-round | light | white, pink, purple, yellow, green | ASPCA: non-toxic to cats and dogs (Phalaenopsis sp.) | Refinement and elegance | ethylene-sensitive |
| Tree peony | 牡丹 | Paeonia × suffruticosa | Paeoniaceae | Focal flower | 3–5 days | spring | light | pink, red, white, yellow, purple | mildly toxic to cats and dogs | Wealth and honour — the "king of flowers" in China | — |
| Peony (herbaceous) | 芍药 | Paeonia lactiflora | Paeoniaceae | Focal flower | 5–7 days | spring | light | pink, white, red | mildly toxic to cats and dogs | Romance and a happy marriage | — |
| Chrysanthemum | 菊花 | Chrysanthemum × morifolium | Asteraceae | Focal flower | 10–14 days | autumn | light | white, yellow, pink, purple, red, orange, green | mildly toxic to cats and dogs | Longevity and nobility in East Asia; white and yellow are also flowers of mourning | — |
| Narcissus (daffodil) | 水仙 | Narcissus | Amaryllidaceae | Focal flower | 4–7 days | winter | strong | yellow, white | mildly toxic to cats and dogs | New beginnings; good fortune at Lunar New Year in China | sap harms other stems: condition alone 12–24h |
| Plum blossom | 梅花 | Prunus mume | Rosaceae | Branch | 7–10 days | winter | light | pink, white, red | not flagged | Resilience — one of the "three friends of winter" | — |
| Wintersweet | 蜡梅 | Chimonanthus praecox | Calycanthaceae | Branch | 7–14 days | winter | strong | yellow | not flagged | — | — |
| Silver wattle (mimosa) | 银荆（金合欢） | Acacia dealbata | Fabaceae | Branch | 5–10 days | winter, spring | light | yellow | not flagged | — | — |
| Astrantia | 大星芹 | Astrantia major | Apiaceae | Filler flower | 7–10 days | summer | none | white, pink, red | not flagged | — | dries well |
| Love-lies-bleeding | 尾穗苋 | Amaranthus caudatus | Amaranthaceae | Line flower | 7–10 days | summer, autumn | none | red, green | not flagged | — | dries well |
| Amaryllis (Hippeastrum) | 朱顶红 | Hippeastrum hybrids | Amaryllidaceae | Focal flower | 7–14 days | winter, spring | none | red, pink, white, orange | mildly toxic to cats and dogs | — | — |
| Bells of Ireland | 贝壳花 | Moluccella laevis | Lamiaceae | Line flower | 7–10 days | summer | none | green | not flagged | — | — |
| Bupleurum | 圆叶柴胡 | Bupleurum rotundifolium | Apiaceae | Filler flower | 7–10 days | spring, summer | none | green, yellow | not flagged | — | — |
| Siam tulip (Curcuma) | 姜荷花 | Curcuma alismatifolia | Zingiberaceae | Focal flower | 7–14 days | summer | none | pink, white, purple | not flagged | — | — |
| Canterbury bells | 风铃草 | Campanula medium | Campanulaceae | Line flower | 5–8 days | spring, summer | none | blue, purple, pink, white | not flagged | — | — |
| Crocosmia | 雄黄兰 | Crocosmia × crocosmiiflora | Iridaceae | Line flower | 5–8 days | summer | none | orange, red, yellow | not flagged | — | — |
| Cherry blossom | 樱花 | Prunus serrulata | Rosaceae | Branch | 5–7 days | spring | light | pink, white | not flagged | The beauty of things that pass | — |
| Peach blossom | 桃花 | Prunus persica | Rosaceae | Branch | 5–10 days | spring | light | pink, white, red | not flagged | Luck in love and prosperity — a Lunar New Year staple in southern China | — |
| Crabapple blossom | 海棠 | Malus spectabilis | Rosaceae | Branch | 5–7 days | spring | light | pink, white | not flagged | Prosperity for the household, in Chinese tradition | — |
| Camellia | 山茶 | Camellia japonica | Theaceae | Focal flower | 3–5 days | winter | none | red, pink, white | ASPCA: non-toxic to cats and dogs (Camellia japonica) | Admiration and understated elegance | — |
| Iris | 鸢尾 | Iris × hollandica | Iridaceae | Focal flower | 4–6 days | spring, summer | light | blue, purple, white, yellow | mildly toxic to cats and dogs | Faith, hope and good news | — |
| Delphinium | 飞燕草 | Delphinium elatum | Ranunculaceae | Line flower | 5–8 days | spring, summer | none | blue, purple, white, pink | mildly toxic to cats and dogs | Lightness and an open heart | ethylene-sensitive; dries well |
| Anemone | 银莲花 | Anemone coronaria | Ranunculaceae | Focal flower | 3–6 days | winter, spring | none | red, white, purple, pink, blue | mildly toxic to cats and dogs | Anticipation | — |
| Eucalyptus | 尤加利 | Eucalyptus cinerea, E. gunnii | Myrtaceae | Foliage | 10–14 days | year-round | light | green, silver-grey | mildly toxic to cats and dogs | — | dries well |
| Monstera leaf | 龟背竹 | Monstera deliciosa | Araceae | Foliage | 10–14 days | year-round | none | green | mildly toxic to cats and dogs | — | — |
| Bamboo | 竹 | Phyllostachys | Poaceae | Branch | 14–30 days | year-round | none | green | not flagged | Integrity and resilience; "bamboo brings news of peace" | — |
| Pine | 松枝 | Pinus | Pinaceae | Branch | 14–30 days | year-round | light | green | not flagged | Longevity and steadfastness | — |
| Maple branches | 枫枝 | Acer palmatum | Sapindaceae | Branch | 7–14 days | autumn | none | red, orange, green | not flagged | — | — |
| Winterberry | 红豆（北美冬青） | Ilex verticillata | Aquifoliaceae | Accent / texture | 14–30 days | autumn, winter | none | red, orange | mildly toxic to cats and dogs | Longing and remembrance; good fortune at Chinese New Year | dries well |
| Calla lily | 马蹄莲 | Zantedeschia | Araceae | Focal flower | 7–10 days | year-round | none | white, yellow, pink, purple, orange | mildly toxic to cats and dogs | Purity and devotion | — |
| Freesia | 小苍兰 | Freesia × hybrida | Iridaceae | Filler flower | 5–8 days | winter, spring | strong | white, yellow, pink, purple, red | not flagged | Innocence and friendship | ethylene-sensitive |
| Hyacinth | 风信子 | Hyacinthus orientalis | Asparagaceae | Focal flower | 5–7 days | winter, spring | strong | blue, purple, pink, white | mildly toxic to cats and dogs | Constancy and rebirth | — |
| Lily of the valley | 铃兰 | Convallaria majalis | Asparagaceae | Filler flower | 4–7 days | spring | strong | white | highly toxic to cats | The return of happiness | — |
| Stock (Matthiola) | 紫罗兰（Matthiola） | Matthiola incana | Brassicaceae | Line flower | 7–10 days | winter, spring | strong | white, pink, purple, yellow | not flagged | Lasting beauty and bonds of affection | ethylene-sensitive |
| Globe amaranth | 千日红 | Gomphrena globosa | Amaranthaceae | Filler flower | 10–14 days | summer, autumn | none | purple, pink, white, red | not flagged | Unfading love | dries well |
| Statice | 星辰花（补血草） | Limonium sinuatum | Plumbaginaceae | Filler flower | 10–14 days | year-round | none | purple, blue, pink, white, yellow | not flagged | Remembrance | dries well |
| Gardenia | 栀子花 | Gardenia jasminoides | Rubiaceae | Focal flower | 3–5 days | summer | strong | white | mildly toxic to cats and dogs | Purity and secret love | — |
| Jasmine | 茉莉 | Jasminum sambac | Oleaceae | Filler flower | 3–5 days | summer | strong | white | not flagged | Sweetness, purity and fidelity | — |
| Lavender | 薰衣草 | Lavandula angustifolia | Lamiaceae | Filler flower | 7–10 days | summer | strong | purple | mildly toxic to cats and dogs | Calm and devotion | dries well |
| Zinnia | 百日菊 | Zinnia elegans | Asteraceae | Focal flower | 5–7 days | summer, autumn | none | red, pink, orange, yellow, white, green, purple | ASPCA: non-toxic to cats and dogs (Zinnia species) | Thoughts of absent friends | — |
| Dahlia | 大丽花 | Dahlia | Asteraceae | Focal flower | 4–6 days | summer, autumn | none | red, pink, orange, yellow, white, purple | mildly toxic to cats and dogs | Elegance and dignity | — |
| Anthurium | 红掌 | Anthurium andraeanum | Araceae | Focal flower | 14–21 days | year-round | none | red, pink, white, green | mildly toxic to cats and dogs | Hospitality | — |
| Celosia | 鸡冠花 | Celosia argentea | Amaranthaceae | Focal flower | 7–10 days | summer, autumn | none | red, orange, yellow, pink | ASPCA: non-toxic to cats and dogs (Celosia spicata) | Unfading affection | dries well |
| Dendrobium orchid | 石斛兰 | Dendrobium | Orchidaceae | Line flower | 10–14 days | year-round | none | white, purple, pink, green | not flagged | Fatherly love and strength — a Father's Day flower in some regions | ethylene-sensitive |
| Lotus | 荷花 | Nelumbo nucifera | Nelumbonaceae | Focal flower | 3–4 days | summer | light | pink, white | not flagged | Purity — rising unstained from the mud | — |
| Water lily | 睡莲 | Nymphaea | Nymphaeaceae | Focal flower | 2–4 days | summer | light | white, pink, yellow, purple, blue | not flagged | Purity | — |
| Craspedia (billy buttons) | 黄金球（金槌花） | Pycnosorus globosus | Asteraceae | Filler flower | 10–14 days | year-round | none | yellow | not flagged | — | dries well |
| Queen Anne's lace (Ammi) | 蕾丝花（阿米芹） | Ammi majus | Apiaceae | Filler flower | 5–7 days | spring, summer | none | white, green | not flagged | — | — |
| Protea | 帝王花 | Protea cynaroides | Proteaceae | Focal flower | 10–14 days | winter, spring | none | pink, white, red | not flagged | Courage and transformation | dries well |
| Waxflower | 澳洲蜡花 | Chamelaucium uncinatum | Myrtaceae | Filler flower | 10–14 days | winter, spring | light | white, pink, purple | not flagged | — | ethylene-sensitive |
| Clematis | 铁线莲 | Clematis | Ranunculaceae | Filler flower | 4–6 days | spring, summer | none | purple, blue, white, pink | mildly toxic to cats and dogs | — | — |
| Lupin | 羽扇豆 | Lupinus polyphyllus | Fabaceae | Line flower | 5–7 days | spring, summer | none | purple, blue, pink, white, yellow | mildly toxic to cats and dogs | — | — |
| Snapdragon | 金鱼草 | Antirrhinum majus | Plantaginaceae | Line flower | 7–10 days | spring | none | white, pink, yellow, orange, red | ASPCA: non-toxic to cats and dogs (Antirrhinum majus) | Graciousness; in southern China, "gold to spare" at New Year | ethylene-sensitive |
| Poppy | 虞美人 | Papaver nudicaule, P. rhoeas | Papaveraceae | Focal flower | 2–4 days | spring | none | red, orange, yellow, white, pink | mildly toxic to cats and dogs | Remembrance and consolation | — |
| Salvia | 鼠尾草 | Salvia farinacea, S. leucantha | Lamiaceae | Line flower | 5–8 days | summer | light | blue, purple | not flagged | — | dries well |
| Daisy (marguerite) | 雏菊（玛格丽特） | Argyranthemum frutescens | Asteraceae | Filler flower | 5–7 days | spring, summer | none | white, yellow, pink | mildly toxic to cats and dogs | Innocence | — |
| Cosmos | 波斯菊 | Cosmos bipinnatus | Asteraceae | Filler flower | 5–7 days | summer, autumn | none | pink, white, red | not flagged | Harmony and modesty | — |
| Calendula | 金盏菊 | Calendula officinalis | Asteraceae | Filler flower | 5–7 days | spring, summer | light | orange, yellow | not flagged | — | — |
| Marigold | 万寿菊 | Tagetes erecta | Asteraceae | Focal flower | 7–10 days | summer, autumn | strong | orange, yellow | not flagged | Longevity in China; the flower of Día de los Muertos in Mexico and of festival garlands in India | — |
| Cornflower | 矢车菊 | Centaurea cyanus | Asteraceae | Filler flower | 5–7 days | spring, summer | none | blue, pink, white | not flagged | Delicacy and meeting happiness | dries well |
| China aster | 翠菊 | Callistephus chinensis | Asteraceae | Filler flower | 7–10 days | summer, autumn | none | purple, pink, white, blue, red | ASPCA: non-toxic to cats and dogs (Callistephus chinensis) | Patience and remembrance | — |
| Magnolia | 玉兰 | Magnolia denudata | Magnoliaceae | Branch | 3–5 days | spring | light | white, pink, purple | not flagged | Nobility and purity | — |
| Wisteria | 紫藤 | Wisteria sinensis | Fabaceae | Branch | 2–4 days | spring | strong | purple, white | mildly toxic to cats and dogs | Welcome and long life | — |
| Forsythia | 连翘 | Forsythia × intermedia | Oleaceae | Branch | 7–10 days | spring | none | yellow | not flagged | Anticipation | — |
| Willow | 柳枝 | Salix babylonica, S. matsudana | Salicaceae | Branch | 10–14 days | spring | none | green | not flagged | — | — |
| Pussy willow | 银柳 | Salix gracilistyla | Salicaceae | Branch | 14–30 days | winter, spring | none | silver-grey | not flagged | "Silver stays": money kept in the household, a Lunar New Year wish | dries well |
| Red-twig dogwood | 红瑞木 | Cornus alba | Cornaceae | Branch | 14–30 days | winter | none | red | not flagged | — | dries well |
| Azalea | 杜鹃 | Rhododendron | Ericaceae | Branch | 5–7 days | spring | none | pink, red, white, purple | highly toxic to cats | — | — |
| Spiraea | 雪柳（绣线菊） | Spiraea thunbergii | Rosaceae | Branch | 5–8 days | spring | none | white | not flagged | — | — |
| Osmanthus | 桂花 | Osmanthus fragrans | Oleaceae | Branch | 3–5 days | autumn | strong | yellow, orange, white | not flagged | Honour and success; the scent of the Mid-Autumn Festival | — |
| Heavenly bamboo (nandina) | 南天竹 | Nandina domestica | Berberidaceae | Accent / texture | 14–30 days | autumn, winter | none | red, green | mildly toxic to cats and dogs | Turning misfortune into fortune — a winter and New Year auspicious plant | — |
| Persimmon branches | 柿子枝 | Diospyros kaki | Ebenaceae | Accent / texture | 14–30 days | autumn | none | orange | not flagged | “May all go as you wish” — in Chinese, persimmon sounds like “matters” | — |
| Lotus pod | 莲蓬 | Nelumbo nucifera | Nelumbonaceae | Accent / texture | 14–30 days | summer, autumn | none | green | not flagged | Many children and blessings | dries well |
| Asparagus fern | 文竹（蓬莱松） | Asparagus setaceus | Asparagaceae | Foliage | 10–14 days | year-round | none | green | mildly toxic to cats and dogs | — | — |
| Palm leaves | 散尾葵 | Dypsis lutescens | Arecaceae | Foliage | 14–21 days | year-round | none | green | not flagged | — | dries well |
| Ivy | 常春藤 | Hedera helix | Araliaceae | Foliage | 10–14 days | year-round | none | green | mildly toxic to cats and dogs | Fidelity — a traditional wedding foliage | — |
| Fatsia | 八角金盘 | Fatsia japonica | Araliaceae | Foliage | 10–14 days | year-round | none | green | not flagged | — | — |
| Dusty miller | 银叶菊 | Jacobaea maritima | Asteraceae | Foliage | 10–14 days | year-round | none | silver-grey | not flagged | — | — |
| Holly | 冬青 | Ilex aquifolium | Aquifoliaceae | Branch | 14–30 days | winter | none | red, green | mildly toxic to cats and dogs | Christmas, protection and good luck | — |
| Cotton stems | 棉花 | Gossypium hirsutum | Malvaceae | Accent / texture | 14–30 days | autumn | none | white | not flagged | Cherish the people beside you | dries well |
| Wheat ears | 麦穗 | Triticum aestivum | Poaceae | Accent / texture | 14–30 days | summer | none | yellow | not flagged | Harvest and prosperity — a good-luck stem in Chinese shop-opening gifts | dries well |
| Ranunculus | 洋牡丹（花毛茛） | Ranunculus asiaticus | Ranunculaceae | Focal flower | 5–8 days | winter, spring | none | pink, white, yellow, orange, red, purple | mildly toxic to cats and dogs | Radiant charm | — |
| Trachelium | 夕雾（疗喉草） | Trachelium caeruleum | Campanulaceae | Filler flower | 7–10 days | summer | none | purple, white, pink | not flagged | — | — |
| Alstroemeria | 六出花（水仙百合） | Alstroemeria | Alstroemeriaceae | Filler flower | 10–14 days | year-round | none | pink, white, yellow, orange, red, purple | ASPCA: non-toxic to cats and dogs (Alstroemeria) | Friendship and devotion | ethylene-sensitive |
| Gladiolus | 唐菖蒲（剑兰） | Gladiolus | Iridaceae | Line flower | 7–10 days | summer, autumn | none | red, pink, white, yellow, orange, purple, green | mildly toxic to cats and dogs | Strength of character; "rising step by step" in Chinese | — |
| Sweet pea | 香豌豆 | Lathyrus odoratus | Fabaceae | Filler flower | 4–7 days | spring | strong | pink, purple, white, red | mildly toxic to cats and dogs | Blissful pleasure and a fond goodbye | ethylene-sensitive |
| Scabiosa | 松虫草 | Scabiosa atropurpurea, S. caucasica | Caprifoliaceae | Filler flower | 5–7 days | summer | none | purple, white, pink, blue | not flagged | — | — |
| Hellebore | 铁筷子（圣诞玫瑰） | Helleborus orientalis | Ranunculaceae | Filler flower | 7–10 days | winter, spring | none | white, green, pink, purple | mildly toxic to cats and dogs | — | — |
| Agapanthus | 百子莲 | Agapanthus praecox | Amaryllidaceae | Focal flower | 7–10 days | summer | none | blue, white | not flagged | Love letters — the "flower of love" | ethylene-sensitive |
| Allium | 大花葱 | Allium giganteum | Amaryllidaceae | Focal flower | 10–14 days | spring, summer | light | purple, white | mildly toxic to cats and dogs | — | dries well |
| Astilbe | 落新妇 | Astilbe × arendsii | Saxifragaceae | Filler flower | 5–7 days | summer | none | pink, white, red | not flagged | — | dries well |
| Eryngium (sea holly) | 刺芹 | Eryngium planum | Apiaceae | Filler flower | 10–14 days | summer | none | blue, silver-grey | not flagged | — | dries well |
| Pincushion protea | 针垫花 | Leucospermum cordifolium | Proteaceae | Focal flower | 10–14 days | winter, spring | none | orange, yellow, red | not flagged | — | — |
| Kangaroo paw | 袋鼠爪 | Anigozanthos | Haemodoraceae | Line flower | 10–14 days | spring, summer | none | red, yellow, orange, green | not flagged | — | dries well |
| Heliconia | 蝎尾蕉 | Heliconia | Heliconiaceae | Focal flower | 10–14 days | year-round | none | red, orange, yellow | not flagged | — | — |
| Tuberose | 晚香玉 | Agave amica | Asparagaceae | Line flower | 5–7 days | summer | strong | white | not flagged | — | — |
| Solidago (goldenrod) | 一枝黄花 | Solidago | Asteraceae | Filler flower | 7–10 days | summer, autumn | none | yellow | not flagged | — | dries well |
| Star of Bethlehem (Ornithogalum) | 伯利恒之星 | Ornithogalum thyrsoides, O. dubium | Asparagaceae | Line flower | 14–21 days | year-round | none | white, orange, yellow | mildly toxic to cats and dogs | — | — |
| Grape hyacinth (Muscari) | 葡萄风信子 | Muscari armeniacum | Asparagaceae | Filler flower | 4–7 days | spring | light | blue, white | not flagged | — | — |
| Bouvardia | 寒丁子 | Bouvardia | Rubiaceae | Filler flower | 7–10 days | year-round | light | white, pink, red | not flagged | — | ethylene-sensitive |
| Veronica | 穗花婆婆纳 | Veronica longifolia | Plantaginaceae | Line flower | 5–7 days | summer | none | blue, purple, pink, white | not flagged | — | — |
| Leucadendron | 木百合 | Leucadendron | Proteaceae | Accent / texture | 14–21 days | year-round | none | red, green, yellow | not flagged | — | dries well |
| Banksia | 佛塔花 | Banksia | Proteaceae | Accent / texture | 14–21 days | year-round | none | orange, yellow, red | not flagged | — | dries well |
| Lilac | 丁香 | Syringa vulgaris | Oleaceae | Branch | 3–5 days | spring | strong | purple, white, pink | not flagged | First love | — |
| Viburnum (snowball) | 绣球荚蒾（雪球） | Viburnum opulus 'Roseum' | Viburnaceae | Branch | 5–7 days | spring | none | green, white | not flagged | — | — |
| Hypericum berries | 金丝桃果 | Hypericum androsaemum, H. × inodorum | Hypericaceae | Accent / texture | 10–14 days | year-round | none | red, pink, green, white | mildly toxic to cats and dogs | — | — |
| Salal | 沙巴叶 | Gaultheria shallon | Ericaceae | Foliage | 14–21 days | year-round | none | green | not flagged | — | — |
| Leatherleaf fern | 高山羊齿 | Rumohra adiantiformis | Dryopteridaceae | Foliage | 10–14 days | year-round | none | green | not flagged | — | — |
| Aspidistra | 一叶兰 | Aspidistra elatior | Asparagaceae | Foliage | 14–21 days | year-round | none | green | not flagged | — | — |
| Pittosporum | 海桐 | Pittosporum tenuifolium, P. tobira | Pittosporaceae | Foliage | 10–14 days | year-round | none | green | not flagged | — | — |
| Myrtle | 香桃木 | Myrtus communis | Myrtaceae | Foliage | 10–14 days | year-round | light | green | not flagged | Love and marriage — a traditional sprig in royal wedding bouquets | — |
| Curly willow | 龙柳（龙爪柳） | Salix matsudana 'Tortuosa' | Salicaceae | Branch | 14–30 days | year-round | none | green | not flagged | — | — |
| Juniper & arborvitae | 柏枝（圆柏、侧柏） | Juniperus chinensis, Platycladus orientalis | Cupressaceae | Branch | 14–30 days | year-round | light | green | not flagged | Constancy and long life — with pine, the evergreen of steadfastness in Chinese tradition | — |
| Ginkgo | 银杏 | Ginkgo biloba | Ginkgoaceae | Branch | 5–10 days | autumn | none | yellow, green | not flagged | Longevity and endurance — a living fossil that has outlived the dinosaurs | — |
| Pear blossom | 梨花 | Pyrus pyrifolia, P. bretschneideri | Rosaceae | Branch | 4–7 days | spring | light | white | not flagged | — | — |
| Purple-leaf plum | 紫叶李 | Prunus cerasifera 'Pissardii' | Rosaceae | Branch | 5–10 days | spring, summer | none | purple, pink | not flagged | — | — |
| Photinia | 石楠（红叶石楠） | Photinia × fraseri 'Red Robin', P. serratifolia | Rosaceae | Branch | 10–14 days | year-round | none | red, green | not flagged | — | — |
| Amur honeysuckle | 金银木 | Lonicera maackii | Caprifoliaceae | Branch | 10–14 days | autumn, winter | none | red, white | not flagged | — | — |
| False spiraea | 珍珠梅 | Sorbaria sorbifolia, S. kirilowii | Rosaceae | Branch | 4–7 days | summer | light | white | not flagged | — | — |
| Loquat leaves | 枇杷叶 | Eriobotrya japonica | Rosaceae | Foliage | 14–21 days | year-round | none | green | not flagged | — | — |
| Hosta leaves | 玉簪叶 | Hosta plantaginea, Hosta spp. | Asparagaceae | Foliage | 7–14 days | summer | none | green | mildly toxic to cats and dogs | — | — |
| Cattail | 水烛（香蒲） | Typha angustifolia, T. orientalis | Typhaceae | Foliage | 10–21 days | summer, autumn | none | green | not flagged | — | — |
| Chinese iris | 马蔺 | Iris lactea | Iridaceae | Line flower | 3–6 days | spring, summer | light | blue, purple | mildly toxic to cats and dogs | — | — |
| Purple loosestrife | 千屈菜 | Lythrum salicaria, L. anceps | Lythraceae | Line flower | 5–7 days | summer | none | purple, pink | not flagged | — | — |
| Obedient plant | 假龙头（随意草） | Physostegia virginiana | Lamiaceae | Line flower | 7–10 days | summer, autumn | none | pink, white, purple | not flagged | — | — |
| Sweet flag (acorus) | 菖蒲（石菖蒲） | Acorus calamus, A. gramineus | Acoraceae | Foliage | 7–14 days | spring, summer | light | green | not flagged | Warding off evil — hung on doors at the Dragon Boat Festival | — |
| Mugwort | 艾草 | Artemisia argyi | Asteraceae | Foliage | 5–7 days | summer | strong | silver-grey, green | not flagged | Health and protection — hung with sweet flag at the Dragon Boat Festival | — |
| Hollyhock | 蜀葵 | Alcea rosea | Malvaceae | Line flower | 5–7 days | summer | none | pink, red, white, yellow, purple | not flagged | — | — |
| Pomegranate | 石榴 | Punica granatum | Lythraceae | Accent / texture | 7–14 days | summer, autumn | none | red, orange | not flagged | Many children and abundance — its seeds stand for a large family | — |
| Daylily | 萱草 | Hemerocallis fulva | Asphodelaceae | Focal flower | 5–7 days | summer | none | orange, yellow | highly toxic to cats | Forgetting sorrow; in China also a symbol of the mother | — |
| Red spider lily | 石蒜（彼岸花） | Lycoris radiata | Amaryllidaceae | Focal flower | 5–7 days | autumn | none | red, white, yellow | mildly toxic to cats and dogs | — | — |
| Hardy begonia | 秋海棠 | Begonia grandis | Begoniaceae | Filler flower | 3–5 days | summer, autumn | none | pink, white | mildly toxic to cats and dogs | — | — |
| Firethorn (pyracantha) | 火棘 | Pyracantha fortuneana | Rosaceae | Accent / texture | 14–21 days | autumn, winter | none | red, orange | not flagged | — | — |
| Buddha’s hand citron | 佛手 | Citrus medica var. sarcodactylis | Rutaceae | Accent / texture | 14–30 days | autumn, winter | strong | yellow | not flagged | Blessing and happiness — in Chinese, “Buddha” sounds like “fortune” | — |
| Lingzhi mushroom | 灵芝 | Ganoderma lingzhi | Ganodermataceae | Accent / texture | 180–365 days | year-round | none | red | not flagged | Longevity and good fortune — the “mushroom of immortality” | — |
| Sacred lily (rohdea) | 万年青 | Rohdea japonica | Asparagaceae | Foliage | 14–30 days | year-round | none | green | mildly toxic to cats and dogs | Everlasting youth and prosperity — the Chinese name means “green for ten thousand years” | — |
| Chinese redbud | 紫荆 | Cercis chinensis | Fabaceae | Branch | 5–7 days | spring | none | purple, pink | not flagged | Family harmony — brothers who stay together | — |
| Winter jasmine | 迎春 | Jasminum nudiflorum | Oleaceae | Branch | 7–10 days | winter, spring | none | yellow | not flagged | Welcoming spring | — |
| Winter daphne | 瑞香 | Daphne odora | Thymelaeaceae | Branch | 5–7 days | winter, spring | strong | pink, white | mildly toxic to cats and dogs | Auspicious fragrance — the first of the 24 flower winds | — |
| Japanese kerria | 棣棠 | Kerria japonica | Rosaceae | Branch | 4–7 days | spring | none | yellow | not flagged | — | — |
| Crape myrtle | 紫薇 | Lagerstroemia indica, L. speciosa | Lythraceae | Branch | 4–7 days | summer | none | pink, purple, white, red | not flagged | — | — |
| Oriental bittersweet | 南蛇藤 | Celastrus orbiculatus | Celastraceae | Accent / texture | 14–30 days | autumn | none | orange, yellow | mildly toxic to cats and dogs | — | — |
| Bougainvillea | 三角梅（叶子花） | Bougainvillea glabra, B. spectabilis | Nyctaginaceae | Branch | 4–7 days | spring, summer, autumn | none | pink, purple, red, orange, white | not flagged | — | — |
| Arrowhead (sagittaria) | 慈姑 | Sagittaria trifolia | Alismataceae | Line flower | 5–7 days | summer | none | white, green | not flagged | — | — |
| Powdery thalia | 再力花 | Thalia dealbata | Marantaceae | Foliage | 7–14 days | summer | none | green, purple | not flagged | — | — |
| Ti plant (cordyline) | 朱蕉 | Cordyline fruticosa | Asparagaceae | Foliage | 14–21 days | year-round | none | red, purple, green | mildly toxic to cats and dogs | — | — |

## Handling notes by flower

- **Rose**: Recut 2–3 cm under water and strip leaves and thorns below the waterline. A drooping "bent neck" usually means an air block: recut and stand the stems deep in warm water for an hour. Peel off only the bruised outer guard petals.
- **Sunflower**: A heavy drinker: use a tall, clean vase and top it up daily. Strip most of the leaves — they wilt long before the head — and support the heavy heads in transport.
- **Hydrangea**: Wilts fast when short of water. Recut, stand deep, and mist the heads; a collapsed head usually revives after 30–60 minutes fully submerged in cool water. Mature "antique" heads dry well in the vase.
- **Lily**: Buy in bud with the first flower showing colour — buds open one after another over a week. Pull off the anthers as each bloom opens, before the pollen ripens; brush spilled pollen off dry, never with water.
- **Tulip**: Tulips keep growing after cutting — often several centimetres — and bend toward light, so leave room in the design. Use shallow, cool water; to straighten floppy stems, wrap the bunch tightly in paper and stand it in water for a few hours.
- **Carnation**: Cut between the swollen nodes, not through them — nodes take up water poorly. Very sensitive to ethylene: keep away from ripening fruit and fading flowers, or the petals curl in ("sleepiness").
- **Gerbera daisy**: Stand in only a few centimetres of very clean water: the hairy stems rot quickly when submerged. Heads droop if the stem bends — support with a wire, a straw sleeve or a grid until the stems firm up.
- **Lisianthus**: Strip foliage below the waterline and pinch out spent blooms; the smallest green buds rarely open. Keep the petals dry — water droplets cause brown botrytis spots.
- **Baby's breath**: Loosen the bunch and give it air — tight, damp bunches go mouldy. Sensitive to ethylene, and it has a noticeable smell in a closed room. Air-dries well.
- **Chamomile**: Strip the lower foliage — it fouls the water quickly — and change the water daily. Florists also sell feverfew (Tanacetum parthenium) under this name; care is the same.
- **Bird of paradise**: A tropical flower: keep above about 10 °C. When the first floret fades, the next ones can be eased out of the boat-shaped sheath by hand.
- **Orchids (cut)**: Extremely sensitive to ethylene — keep well away from fruit and fading flowers — and to cold draughts. Cut stems usually arrive in water tubes: keep the tubes topped up.
- **Tree peony**: Buy in soft bud and keep cool; open blooms are short-lived and the petals bruise at a touch, so deliver quickly and handle by the stem.
- **Peony (herbaceous)**: Buy at the "marshmallow" stage — the bud gives when squeezed. Rock-hard buds may never open; wiping off the sticky nectar with warm water helps. Buds hold dry in cold storage for several days.
- **Chrysanthemum**: Strip the leaves — they yellow and decay well before the flowers do — and recut every few days. One of the longest-lasting cut flowers.
- **Narcissus (daffodil)**: Freshly cut stems leak a sap that clogs other flowers. Condition them alone for 12–24 hours, then add to the mixed vase without recutting.
- **Plum blossom**: Cut in tight bud and split or crush the woody ends. Buds open indoors in warmth within days; mist them so they do not dry out.
- **Wintersweet**: Recut the woody stem and keep it in clean water. Buds open in warmth; keep branches away from heating vents.
- **Silver wattle (mimosa)**: Remove foliage below the waterline, recut the woody stem and keep cool. The small flower heads dry quickly in warm air.
- **Astrantia**: Recut the stems and keep them in clean water; remove submerged leaves. The papery bracts can also be air dried.
- **Love-lies-bleeding**: Support the long, heavy tassels in a tall vase and keep the water clean. Hang stems upside down to dry.
- **Amaryllis (Hippeastrum)**: Its hollow stem can split at the base: recut cleanly and use a tall vase to support the heavy blooms. Remove spent flowers.
- **Bells of Ireland**: The green bells are calyces around small white flowers. Remove submerged leaves, recut and keep in clean water.
- **Bupleurum**: Use the branching green flower heads as airy filler. Strip any leaves below the waterline and recut before arranging.
- **Siam tulip (Curcuma)**: A tropical stem: avoid cold storage and drafts. Recut and place in clean water; the coloured parts are bracts.
- **Canterbury bells**: Choose stems with some open bells and unopened buds. Strip submerged foliage and remove faded bells from the lower stem.
- **Crocosmia**: Cut spikes with the first florets open; later buds can open in the vase. Recut and remove fading lower flowers.
- **Cherry blossom**: Deliver in bud: once open, the petals fall within days. Split the woody ends and stand in deep water.
- **Peach blossom**: Sold in bud for Lunar New Year. Split the stems, and hold in a cool place to slow opening or a warm one to speed it up.
- **Crabapple blossom**: Cut in bud and split the woody ends; the flowers open in a warm room and last about a week.
- **Camellia**: Blooms bruise easily and drop whole, so handle by the stem and never touch the petals. In Japan camellias are avoided for the sick precisely because the whole flower falls at once.
- **Iris**: Buy at the "pencil" stage with a line of colour showing. Each bloom lasts about three days; keep the water cool and the flowers away from heat.
- **Delphinium**: Very sensitive to ethylene: florets shatter near fruit or exhaust fumes. The stems are hollow and snap easily, so handle gently and keep upright. Dries well.
- **Anemone**: Opens in light and warmth and closes at night. The stems keep lengthening and bend toward light; use shallow, cool water and top it up — anemones are thirsty.
- **Eucalyptus**: Strip the lower leaves. The resin is sticky — clean snips with alcohol afterwards. Dries beautifully, keeping its scent and colour.
- **Monstera leaf**: Wipe the leaves clean; a single leaf lasts weeks in water. The sap can irritate skin.
- **Bamboo**: The culms last for weeks, but cut leaves curl within a day or two unless the hollow culm is filled with water; mist often. "Lucky bamboo" sold in shops is a Dracaena, not true bamboo.
- **Pine**: Lasts for weeks with very little water. Resin gums up blades — clean them with alcohol. A New Year staple in both China and Japan.
- **Maple branches**: Split the woody ends, condition in deep water and mist the leaves; they crisp quickly in dry, heated rooms.
- **Winterberry**: Sold as bare branches covered in berries. Recut and stand in a little water, or use dry: the berries hold for weeks either way. Keep cool, because warmth makes them shrivel and drop. Handle gently, since knocked berries fall off, and remind clients that the berries are not edible.
- **Calla lily**: Use shallow water: the fleshy stems turn mushy and split when submerged. Stems can be curved gently by warming them in your hands. Despite the name it is not a true lily.
- **Freesia**: Florets open in sequence along the comb: pinch off the spent ones and use flower food so the top buds open. Sensitive to ethylene.
- **Hyacinth**: Leave the white base of the stem on — it lasts longer that way. The heavy heads topple, so support them; the sap can irritate skin, so wear gloves when handling many.
- **Lily of the valley**: Often sold with roots attached: keep them moist and it lasts longer. Delicate and expensive, mostly used in bridal work. Every part is poisonous, vase water included — wash your hands.
- **Stock (Matthiola)**: Fouls the water faster than almost any other flower: strip every leaf below the waterline, cut off the white woody base and change the water daily.
- **Globe amaranth**: Holds its colour for months when dried: hang small bunches upside down in a dark, airy place.
- **Statice**: The papery flowers keep their colour dried. In water the stems rot and smell, so change it often and strip the winged leaves.
- **Gardenia**: Petals brown wherever they are touched: handle with damp hands, by the leaves only, and mist lightly. Often floated in a bowl or used in corsages.
- **Jasmine**: Each flower lasts a day or two while new buds keep opening. Keep cool and misted; traditionally strung into garlands.
- **Lavender**: Keeps better dry than wet. If used fresh, give it very little water and change it often; otherwise hang it upside down to dry.
- **Zinnia**: Do the "wiggle test": the stem below the head should be stiff, not floppy. Change the water often; the stems foul it quickly.
- **Dahlia**: Buds do not open after cutting, so buy nearly fully open. Stand the freshly cut ends in hot water and let it cool to extend life, and change the water daily.
- **Anthurium**: Tropical: never store below about 13 °C or the spathe turns blue-black. Mist the spathe; one of the longest-lasting cut flowers.
- **Celosia**: Strip all the leaves — they wilt first — and keep the dense head dry, as it moulds easily. Dries well, holding its colour.
- **Dendrobium orchid**: Arrives in water tubes: keep them filled. Tropical and ethylene-sensitive, so no cold storage and no fruit nearby; the top buds often do not open.
- **Lotus**: Cut lotus closes at night and seldom reopens, so use it in bud and display the same day. Traditional practice injects water into the stem, and the outer petals are often folded back by hand.
- **Water lily**: Opens by day and closes at night. Float it in a shallow bowl; a drop of melted wax at the base of the petals is the traditional trick for keeping it open.
- **Craspedia (billy buttons)**: Needs almost no care and dries perfectly in the vase. Keep the water shallow and clean — the stems rot if they sit deep.
- **Queen Anne's lace (Ammi)**: Buy when about half the florets are open. The sap can make skin sensitive to sunlight — wear gloves — and older heads shed tiny florets.
- **Protea**: The leaves blacken long before the flower head does, so strip them. Give it clean water and plenty of light; it dries well and keeps its shape.
- **Waxflower**: Shake the bunch before buying: fresh stems do not shed. Ethylene makes the flowers drop. The needle-like leaves smell of citrus when crushed.
- **Clematis**: Wilts easily. Sear the cut ends or dip them in hot water, then condition in deep water overnight before arranging.
- **Lupin**: Tips curve upward if laid flat, so keep the spikes upright. The stems are hollow: handle gently, and expect the lowest florets to drop first.
- **Snapdragon**: Geotropic: tips bend upward within hours if the spikes lie flat, so store and transport upright. Sensitive to ethylene; pinch off faded lower florets.
- **Poppy**: Seal the milky sap: sear the cut end with a flame or dip it in boiling water for 10–20 seconds. Buy in cracked bud with colour showing.
- **Salvia**: Strip the leaves and keep well watered — the spikes wilt quickly when dry. Several kinds dry well.
- **Daisy (marguerite)**: Thirsty stems with foliage that fouls the water: strip the leaves below the waterline and top up daily.
- **Cosmos**: Cut or buy when the petals are just unfolding. Delicate and quick to drop petals — best for same-day or next-day work.
- **Calendula**: The stems are sticky and the foliage fouls the water: strip the leaves and change the water daily. Flowers close in the dark.
- **Marigold**: Strip the pungent leaves, which rot quickly underwater. The hollow stems kink easily, so support them in the bunch.
- **Cornflower**: One of the few truly blue cut flowers. Buy half open; dries holding its blue.
- **China aster**: The leaves wilt before the flowers: strip them and change the water regularly.
- **Magnolia**: Cut in furry bud and split the stems. The petals bruise brown at a touch, so place the branch once and leave it.
- **Wisteria**: Notoriously hard to hydrate. Ikebana practice dips the cut end in alcohol or sears it; even so, use it the same day.
- **Forsythia**: The easiest branch to force: cut in bud in late winter, bring into a warm room, and it flowers in one to two weeks.
- **Willow**: In water it roots and leafs out. For structure that stays as it is, keep the stems dry; curly willow can be bent while fresh.
- **Pussy willow**: Keep it dry — no water — and the catkins hold for months. In water they flower, shed pollen and the stems root.
- **Red-twig dogwood**: Bare red winter stems for colour and structure. They last for weeks with or without water and can be bent into shapes while fresh.
- **Azalea**: Split the woody ends and condition in deep water. The flowers bruise easily, so position the branch before the buds open fully.
- **Spiraea**: Supple arching lines, much used in ikebana and Japanese-style bridal work. The tiny petals shower as it ages, so use it for events rather than long-lasting vases.
- **Osmanthus**: Valued for scent rather than show — one sprig perfumes a room. The florets drop within days; mist to slow it.
- **Heavenly bamboo (nandina)**: Clusters of red berries over lacy leaves that redden in winter. Berries drop if the stems dry out — keep in deep water and mist.
- **Persimmon branches**: Autumn fruiting branches, often with the leaves stripped so the orange fruit stands out. Fruit is heavy: wire or wedge the branch firmly.
- **Lotus pod**: Fresh green pods brown within days. Most are used dried, and then last for years.
- **Asparagus fern**: Sheds its fine needles when old or dry: mist it and keep it away from heat. Mind the small thorns on the stems.
- **Palm leaves**: Fronds can be trimmed into shapes with scissors. Tips brown in dry air; dried and bleached palm is also widely used.
- **Ivy**: Condition by submerging whole trails in water for half an hour. Holds up well out of water, which makes it useful for wired and trailing work.
- **Fatsia**: Large glossy leaves for collars and for covering mechanics. Wipe them clean before use.
- **Dusty miller**: Wilts easily: dip the cut ends in hot water or sear them, then hydrate overnight before using. Keep the felted leaves dry.
- **Holly**: Berries drop in warm rooms: keep cool and mist. The berries are toxic if eaten and the leaves are spiny — wear gloves.
- **Cotton stems**: A dried material: keep it out of water, because wet bolls go mouldy.
- **Wheat ears**: A dried material: keep it dry and away from damp foam.
- **Ranunculus**: The hollow, soft stems rot easily: use shallow, clean water and change it daily. Heads are heavy and stems bend toward light, so give support; buds showing colour will open.
- **Trachelium**: Strip the leaves, which yellow quickly, and keep it well watered.
- **Alstroemeria**: The leaves yellow long before the flowers fade: strip most of them. Pull out spent florets and the next buds open. The sap can irritate skin.
- **Gladiolus**: Geotropic — keep the spikes upright or the tips bend. Pinch out the top two or three buds so the lower florets open evenly, and remove faded florets from the bottom up.
- **Sweet pea**: Extremely sensitive to ethylene and naturally short-lived. Keep cool, in shallow water, and never wet the petals.
- **Scabiosa**: Buy when the outer ring of florets has opened. The thin stems kink easily; the seed heads are also used dried.
- **Hellebore**: Young blooms wilt within hours. Choose mature flowers whose stamens have dropped and seed pods have formed — or score the stem lengthwise and give it a hot-water dip.
- **Agapanthus**: Florets drop when exposed to ethylene: shake the head gently before use and keep away from fruit.
- **Allium**: Gives the water an onion smell: change it often and add a drop of bleach. The seed heads dry well.
- **Astilbe**: The plume tips shrivel quickly out of water. Condition in hot water and keep deeply hydrated; otherwise use it dried.
- **Eryngium (sea holly)**: Spiny — wear gloves. Holds its steel-blue colour when dried.
- **Pincushion protea**: The leaves blacken — strip them — and the heads snap off easily at the neck. Needs clean water and good light.
- **Kangaroo paw**: The fine hairs can irritate skin and eyes — do not rub your eyes while working. Keep well hydrated or the tips dry out; it also dries well.
- **Heliconia**: Does not open further after cutting, so buy at the stage you need. Never refrigerate. The stems are heavy — use a weighty container — and rinse the bracts, which hold stale water.
- **Tuberose**: Florets open from the bottom up and the top buds often fail; remove spent ones. The scent intensifies at night, so use sparingly indoors.
- **Solidago (goldenrod)**: Buy a third to half open and strip the leaves, which decay quickly. Dries well.
- **Star of Bethlehem (Ornithogalum)**: Exceptionally long-lasting: florets open from the bottom over weeks. Tips bend toward light; remove faded lower florets.
- **Grape hyacinth (Muscari)**: Tiny, short stems for small posies and bridal detail. Use shallow, cool water; the stems lengthen a little after cutting.
- **Bouvardia**: Wilts readily: strip the foliage, recut, and keep in deep water with flower food. Sensitive to ethylene.
- **Veronica**: Tips droop when thirsty and recover after a recut and a deep drink. Strip the leaves.
- **Leucadendron**: The colour comes from bracts, not petals. Woody, undemanding, lasts for weeks and dries in place.
- **Banksia**: Cut the woody stems with secateurs. It drinks heavily at first, then dries in the vase while keeping its form.
- **Lilac**: Strip nearly all the leaves — they take the water first — split the woody ends and condition in deep warm water overnight.
- **Viburnum (snowball)**: Strip the leaves and split the stems. Heads start lime green and turn white; a wilted head revives when submerged in cool water.
- **Hypericum berries**: Used for its berries, not its flowers. The leaves blacken first — strip them — and the berries then last well.
- **Salal**: Sold as "lemon leaf". Sturdy and long-lasting; wipe the leaves for a clean shine.
- **Leatherleaf fern**: The classic base foliage for foam work. Mist it — the fronds crisp in hot, dry rooms.
- **Aspidistra**: The staple leaf for manipulation: it can be folded, looped, rolled or split, and lasts for weeks.
- **Pittosporum**: Woody stems: strip the lower leaves and recut. Variegated forms brighten dark designs.
- **Myrtle**: Aromatic, woody and long-lasting: split the stem ends and strip the lower leaves.
- **Curly willow**: Naturally contorted twigs give instant line and movement; strip the leaves for a bare winter look. Recut at an angle — stems kept in water may root.
- **Juniper & arborvitae**: Scale-leaved evergreen branches last for weeks and give a dense dark base or a firm main line. Strip the needles below the water and recut the woody end.
- **Ginkgo**: Cut autumn branches when the fan-shaped leaves have just turned gold; once fully yellow they drop quickly. Keep away from heat.
- **Pear blossom**: Choose branches with fat buds just showing white; split the woody base and give deep water. Pear is rarely given alone in China, where its name sounds like “parting”.
- **Purple-leaf plum**: Dark wine-purple leaves add depth to light designs; spring branches carry small pale pink flowers. Split the woody end and remove leaves below the water.
- **Photinia**: Valued for the glossy bright red new shoots against dark green older leaves. Long-lasting; split the stem end and strip lower leaves.
- **Amur honeysuckle**: Used in autumn and winter for its paired translucent red berries on arching twigs, often after the leaves have fallen. Handle gently — ripe berries drop.
- **False spiraea**: Pick plumes with the bead-like buds still mostly closed; open flowers shed quickly. Remove most of the pinnate leaves and split the stem end.
- **Loquat leaves**: Large, stiff, deeply veined leaves with a rusty felted underside — bold texture for Chinese vase work and still-life pieces. Very long-lasting.
- **Hosta leaves**: Broad ribbed leaves, plain or cream-edged, used at the base of summer arrangements to cover the mechanics. Submerge new leaves for an hour before use.
- **Cattail**: Long strap leaves bend into arcs and loops — a classic for water-side and summer pieces; the brown spikes dry well. Spray spikes with hairspray or they burst into fluff.
- **Chinese iris**: Pale blue-violet flowers among tough, narrow, slightly twisted leaves; in Chinese vase work the leaves often matter more than the flowers. Flowers last only a few days.
- **Purple loosestrife**: Tall magenta spikes for summer water-side designs. Strip the lower leaves and hydrate deeply; the lowest florets open first.
- **Obedient plant**: Square stems with neat four-sided spikes of tubular flowers; florets stay where you push them. Strip lower leaves; the tips keep growing towards the light.
- **Sweet flag (acorus)**: Sword-shaped aromatic leaves for upright lines; the Dragon Boat Festival classic with mugwort. Not the same plant as the Japanese water iris.
- **Mugwort**: Silvery, strongly scented leaves; wilts fast, so condition in deep cool water before arranging. Pairs with sweet flag for the Dragon Boat Festival.
- **Hollyhock**: Tall spikes that open from the bottom up; a Dragon Boat Festival flower with pomegranate and sweet flag. Sear or dip the stem end in hot water to stop wilting.
- **Pomegranate**: Summer branches carry scarlet flowers (a Dragon Boat Festival flower); autumn branches carry fruit. Split the woody stem and support heavy fruit.
- **Daylily**: Each flower lasts a day, but buds keep opening along the stem; pick off spent flowers daily. Highly toxic to cats, like true lilies.
- **Red spider lily**: Leafless stalks topped by spidery red flowers around the autumn equinox; a Mid-Autumn material. All parts are toxic — wash hands after handling.
- **Hardy begonia**: Nodding sprays of small pink flowers over lopsided leaves; a Mid-Autumn material. Soft, watery stems: keep cool and use in shallow arrangements. Not related to flowering crabapple.
- **Firethorn (pyracantha)**: Thorny branches packed with red-orange berries for autumn and New Year pieces. Wear gloves, strip the thorns at the base, and split the stem.
- **Buddha’s hand citron**: A fragrant fingered fruit placed beside or below the arrangement in Chinese still-life pieces; lasts weeks and scents the room.
- **Lingzhi mushroom**: A dried, lacquer-glossy bracket fungus used in festive and temple offerings and still-life pieces. Keep dry; it never goes in water.
- **Sacred lily (rohdea)**: Thick, arching evergreen leaves (sometimes with a red berry cluster) for formal and New Year pieces; in Ikenobo it is a classic subject. Very long-lasting.
- **Chinese redbud**: Bare spring branches thickly covered with small magenta pea-flowers right on the wood. Cut in tight bud; split the stem and give deep water.
- **Winter jasmine**: Arching green stems with small yellow flowers before the leaves — the first spring line. Buds open in a warm room; easy to bend into cascades.
- **Winter daphne**: Short branches with intensely fragrant pink-white flower clusters among leathery leaves. All parts are poisonous — keep from pets and children, and wash hands.
- **Japanese kerria**: Slender green arching stems with golden flowers; a spring line in Chinese and Japanese work. Petals drop easily — cut in bud and handle gently.
- **Crape myrtle**: Summer branches with crinkled flower panicles. Remove most leaves, split the stem and hydrate deeply; florets shed, so arrange close to delivery.
- **Oriental bittersweet**: Twining autumn vines whose yellow capsules split to show orange-red seeds; adds colour and curving line. Dries in place and lasts for weeks.
- **Bougainvillea**: The colour comes from papery bracts around tiny white flowers. Thorny branches: sear or split the ends; bracts last longer than they look.
- **Arrowhead (sagittaria)**: Arrow-shaped leaves and stalks of small white flowers for water-side and lotus pieces; the corms are a New Year still-life item. Keep stems in deep water.
- **Powdery thalia**: Tall stems with broad blue-grey leaves and, in summer, wiry purple flower stalks; gives lean, upright lines in water and lotus pieces.
- **Ti plant (cordyline)**: Long glossy leaves in burgundy, pink or green; fold, loop or use flat as a bold colour block. Very long-lasting; wipe leaves to restore the shine.

## Holiday price calendar

| Holiday | Market | Dates | Flowers affected | Typical wholesale price vs normal | Stock up ahead |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Valentine's Day | Worldwide | 2026-02-14, 2027-02-14, 2028-02-14 | Rose | 2–3× | 21 days |
| Chinese New Year | Chinese mainland | 2026-02-17, 2027-02-06, 2028-01-26 | Orchids (cut), Pussy willow, Peach blossom, Lily, Bamboo | 1.5–3× | 30 days |
| Women's Day | Chinese mainland | 2026-03-08, 2027-03-08, 2028-03-08 | Rose, Carnation, Lily | 1.2–1.5× | 14 days |
| White Day | Japan, Korea | 2026-03-14, 2027-03-14, 2028-03-14 | Rose | 1.2–1.5× | 14 days |
| Qingming | Chinese mainland | 2026-04-05, 2027-04-05, 2028-04-04 | Chrysanthemum, Lily | 1.5–2× | 14 days |
| Mother's Day | Chinese mainland, United States, Japan | 2026-05-10, 2027-05-09, 2028-05-14 | Carnation, Lily, Rose | 1.5–2.5× | 21 days |
| Parents' Day | Korea | 2026-05-08, 2027-05-08, 2028-05-08 | Carnation | 1.5–2.5× | 21 days |
| 520 (May 20) | Chinese mainland | 2026-05-20, 2027-05-20, 2028-05-20 | Rose | 1.5–2× | 14 days |
| Qixi | Chinese mainland | 2026-08-19, 2027-08-08, 2028-08-26 | Rose | 1.5–2.5× | 21 days |
| Teachers' Day | Chinese mainland | 2026-09-10, 2027-09-10, 2028-09-10 | Carnation, Sunflower | 1.2–1.5× | 14 days |
| Christmas | Worldwide | 2026-12-25, 2027-12-25, 2028-12-25 | Pine, Holly, Heavenly bamboo (nandina) | 1.2–1.6× | 30 days |

## 品类专题知识库（中文公开）
- 总览：https://floreboard.com/zh/topics/
- 蝴蝶兰：https://floreboard.com/phalaenopsis/
- 大花蕙兰：https://floreboard.com/cymbidium/
- 蕙兰（国兰）：https://floreboard.com/huilan/
- 月季：https://floreboard.com/rose/
- 菊花：https://floreboard.com/chrysanthemum/
- 绣球：https://floreboard.com/hydrangea/
- 百合：https://floreboard.com/lily/
- 康乃馨：https://floreboard.com/carnation/
- 郁金香：https://floreboard.com/tulip/
- 非洲菊：https://floreboard.com/gerbera/
- 满天星：https://floreboard.com/gypsophila/
- 芍药：https://floreboard.com/peony/
- 洋桔梗：https://floreboard.com/eustoma/
- 红掌：https://floreboard.com/anthurium/

## Full text of guides, product pages and plant reference pages

<!-- https://floreboard.com/en/features/ -->

# How Floreboard works

How florists use Floreboard: enter stock, describe the order, generate a costed design, have it reviewed automatically, share it with the client and make it from a production sheet that deducts inventory.

## Key facts

- Designs use only the flowers in your inventory.
- Every design is checked for style, taboos, vase life, season, pet safety and holiday prices.
- Free to start: 30 credits cover 5 plans with an image when both steps succeed.

## From order to finished piece in six steps

- **Enter your stock** — Record what you have: flower, quantity, unit cost and retail price. Every design then uses only flowers you actually hold.
- **Describe the order** — Pick the occasion, recipient, style, palette, format (bouquet, vase, box or basket) and budget — or upload a reference photo and design from that. Pro mode lets you choose a style school and technique.
- **Generate the design** — The AI returns a recipe, cost and margin, steps and copy for 1 credit. The default 1K image costs 5 credits; 2K costs 8 and 4K costs 12. A plan and first image cost 6 / 9 / 13 credits respectively. Choose from six visual styles and six optional creative effects.
- **Automatic review** — Each design is checked against style rules, cultural taboos, vase life, season, pet safety and holiday pricing. Serious issues are corrected automatically; the rest are listed as suggestions. Reviews cost no credits.
- **Send it to the client** — Create a share link and send it by message. The client needs no account to see the image, flowers and copy, and can approve or ask for changes. Cost and profit never appear on the shared page.
- **Make it from the production sheet** — The sheet lists container, mechanics, stem lengths and assembly order, and checks stock, budget and balance first. Confirming it deducts the stems from inventory.

## What else it does

### Client profiles

Keep each regular's pets, sensitivities, flowers to avoid, favourites and colours. They are applied to every later design, and preferences are learned from designs rated four or five stars.

### Price insights

Alerts ahead of holidays for the stock that will be affected and, once you enter costs, how your purchase prices and the platform's (at least three shops, aggregated) have moved. Only ratios are compared — no shop's actual prices are shared.

### Cost and margin

Every design shows price, material cost, profit and margin, with a warning when margin drops below 35% or cost exceeds the budget.

### Six languages

English, Chinese, Japanese, Korean, French and Spanish. Cultural taboo checks follow the interface language.

### Every device

Data lives in the cloud, so phone, tablet and desktop show the same inventory and designs; it can be added to an iPhone or iPad home screen and run full-screen.

## What the review checks

The rules are deterministic, not AI guesses, and they are published in full: [Flower arrangement checklist before delivery](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/arrangement-checklist/) · [Floral design styles compared](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/floral-design-styles/) · [Pet-safe flowers for cats and dogs](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/pet-safe-flowers/) · [Holiday flower price calendar](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/holiday-flower-prices/)

[Try Floreboard free](https://floreboard.com/?lng=en-US#/design) · [Pricing](https://floreboard.com/en/pricing/) · [Floreboard FAQ](https://floreboard.com/en/faq/)

## FAQ

### Does Floreboard invent flowers I do not have?

It designs from your inventory. If the AI ever suggests a flower you do not hold, the production sheet marks it as "not in inventory" so you can confirm you can source it.

### Can clients see my costs?

No. The shared page shows only the image, flowers and quantities, the copy and your shop name — and the price if you choose to show it. Shared pages are not indexed by search engines, and a link can be revoked at any time.

### Which design styles does it know?

Ikenobo, Ohara and Sogetsu from Japan; Chinese literati and Zen styles; Biedermeier and English garden from Europe; and a free "fusion" mode.

### How much does it cost?

Sign-up is free with 30 credits. A design costs 1 credit and a preview image 5; credit packs start at $4.99.

Last reviewed: 2026-10-31. [About our data](https://floreboard.com/en/about/)


---

<!-- https://floreboard.com/en/pricing/ -->

# Floreboard pricing

30 free credits on sign-up; a design costs 1 credit and a default 1K preview image 5. Credit packs from $4.99; Pro plans $9.90 / $89.00.

## What credits buy

- **On sign-up:** 30 credits

- **Design from a brief:** 1 credit

- **Design from a reference photo:** 1 credit

- **Default 1K image:** 5 credits

- **2K image or rerender:** 8 credits

- **4K image or rerender:** 12 credits

- **Default plan + 1K image:** 6 credits · 30 welcome credits cover 5 complete designs

- **Plan + first image by size:** 1K 6 / 2K 9 / 4K 13 credits; 30 welcome credits cover 5 / 3 / 2 complete designs respectively

- **Review, inventory and client profiles:** free

## Plans

| Plan | Price (USD) | Credits | Roughly |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 100-credit pack | $4.99 one-time | 100 credits | up to 16 designs with one default 1K image |
| 300-credit pack | $12.99 one-time | 300 credits | up to 50 designs with one default 1K image |
| Pro monthly | $9.90 per month | 300 credits each month | up to 50 designs with one default 1K image |
| Pro yearly | $89.00 per year | 3000 credits | up to 500 designs with one default 1K image |

Payments are processed by Waffo as Merchant of Record. [Refund and cancellation policy](https://floreboard.com/refund)

[Buy in the app](https://floreboard.com/?lng=en-US#/pricing)

## FAQ

### Is Floreboard free?

New shops get 30 credits. At default 1K, the flow creates a plan and one image for 6 credits when both succeed, so that covers 5 complete designs.

### How much does one design cost?

The plan request costs 1 credit. The default 1K image costs 5 credits; 2K costs 8 and 4K costs 12. A successful plan plus first image costs 6 / 9 / 13 credits respectively. Rerenders use the selected image rate.

### Do credits expire?

No. Credits from packs and subscriptions stay on your shop account.

### Can I get a refund?

See the refund and cancellation policy.


---

<!-- https://floreboard.com/en/faq/ -->

# Floreboard FAQ

Answers to 16 common questions about Floreboard, the AI design and operations assistant for florists: what it does, how designs are reviewed, credits and pricing, languages and data.

## The product

### What is Floreboard?

Floreboard is an AI design and operations assistant for florists and floral studios. It designs arrangements from a shop's real inventory, reviews each one against professional rules, tracks cost and margin, deducts stock and remembers repeat clients.

### Who is it for?

Independent flower shops, floral studios and event florists who quote and design to order.

### Is it a consumer flower-delivery site?

No. Floreboard does not sell or deliver flowers; it is a working tool for the people who do.

### Which languages does it support?

English, Chinese, Japanese, Korean, French and Spanish.

### Do I need to install anything?

No. It runs in the browser on phone, tablet and desktop, and can be added to the home screen on iPhone and iPad.

## Designs and review

### What does a generated design include?

A recipe with stem counts, cost and margin, making steps and copy for the client. A preview image can be added.

### What does the design review check?

Balance of focal, filler and foliage; vase-life mismatches; season; cultural taboos such as chrysanthemums and the numbers 4 and 9; pet toxicity; scent and pollen for sensitive clients; style-school rules; and upcoming holiday price surges.

### Is the review done by AI?

No. The review is a fixed set of rules, so the same design always gets the same result. The rules are published on this site.

### Can I design from a photo?

Yes. Upload a reference image — a dress, a venue, a painting — and the design is matched to its palette and mood from your stock, for 1 credit.

## Pricing and credits

### Is Floreboard free?

Sign-up is free with 30 credits. The default 1K plan-and-image flow costs 6 credits when both steps succeed, enough for 5 complete designs.

### What do credits cost?

100 credits for $4.99; 300 credits for $12.99. Pro: $9.90 per month for 300 credits; $89.00 per year for 3000 credits.

### What uses credits?

A design from a brief or a photo costs 1 credit. Each image costs 5 at default 1K, 8 at 2K, or 12 at 4K. Reviews, inventory, client profiles and sharing are free.

### Do credits expire?

No. Credits from packs and subscriptions stay on your shop account.

## Data and privacy

### Where is my data stored?

In the cloud, so every device you sign in on shows the same inventory, clients and designs.

### Are other shops able to see my prices?

No. Platform price trends are aggregated from at least three shops and compare only percentage changes, never actual prices.

### Where do the flower facts come from?

From common trade reference values, with pet toxicity following the ASPCA list. See "About our data" for sources and limits.

[How Floreboard works](https://floreboard.com/en/features/) · [Pricing](https://floreboard.com/en/pricing/) · [About our data](https://floreboard.com/en/about/) · [Privacy](https://floreboard.com/privacy) · [Refund policy](https://floreboard.com/refund)

Last reviewed: 2026-10-31. [About our data](https://floreboard.com/en/about/)


---

<!-- https://floreboard.com/en/about/ -->

# About our data

Where the Floreboard flower guide gets its figures, what each one means and where it stops being reliable — plus downloadable data for 157 flowers and 11 holidays.

## Key facts

- Figures are typical trade reference values, not guarantees.
- Pet toxicity follows the ASPCA list; 49 of 157 entries are flagged, and "not flagged" does not mean safe.
- The public pages and the in-app review read the same knowledge base.

## One knowledge base, two uses

These pages are generated from the same knowledge base that Floreboard uses to review designs inside the product: 157 cut flowers, branches and foliage, 11 holidays, and the cultural and style rules. When a value is corrected, the public page and the in-app review change together.

## What each figure means, and its limits

| Data | What it is | Limits |
| --- | --- | --- |
| **Vase life** | A typical range in days from common trade references, assuming a clean vase, a fresh cut and flower food. | Variety, origin, time in transit and conditioning move it by days in either direction. |
| **Season** | When supply is plentiful and quality steady, by Northern Hemisphere season. | Greenhouse and imported stems are sold outside these seasons, usually at a higher price. |
| **Fragrance** | Three levels — none, light, strong — for the common commercial forms. | Varieties differ; garden roses, for example, are far more scented than standard cut roses. |
| **Pet toxicity** | Flags follow the ASPCA toxic and non-toxic plants list: "highly toxic to cats" or "mildly toxic to cats and dogs". | "Not flagged" does not mean safe. Check the exact species, or ask a vet. |
| **Holiday prices** | Typical wholesale price multiples before each holiday, with suggested lead times. | Ranges for planning, not quotes. Local markets and individual years vary. |
| **Customs and meanings** | Widely documented conventions: number and colour taboos, funeral and hospital customs, flower language. | They vary by family, generation and region. Ask the client when unsure. |
| **Botanical names, roles, colours, handling** | Editorial notes written for these pages from standard horticultural and floristry practice. | Colours list natural hues only; handling notes are general and may not suit every variety. |

## Download the data

- [flowers.csv](https://floreboard.com/data/flowers.csv) · [flowers.json](https://floreboard.com/data/flowers.json) — 157 flowers: names in English and Chinese, botanical name, family, role, vase life, season, fragrance, colours, pet toxicity

- [holidays.json](https://floreboard.com/data/holidays.json) — 11 holidays: market, dates, flowers affected, typical price multiple, lead time

- [llms.txt](https://floreboard.com/llms.txt) · [llms-full.txt](https://floreboard.com/llms-full.txt) — an index and a single-file edition for AI assistants; every page also has a Markdown copy at its address plus index.md

## Who publishes this

Floreboard builds an AI design and operations assistant for florists. Contact: corlin@qq.com. [How Floreboard works](https://floreboard.com/en/features/) · [Floreboard FAQ](https://floreboard.com/en/faq/)

## FAQ

### Can I cite or quote these pages?

Yes. Please credit "Floreboard" and link to the page you used. The figures are reference values, so quote them as typical ranges rather than guarantees.

### How often is the data reviewed?

Each page shows a "last reviewed" date. The current knowledge base version is 2026-10-31.3.

### I found a mistake. How do I report it?

Email corlin@qq.com with the page address and the correction. Corrections go into the knowledge base, so they reach both these pages and the product.

### Is this veterinary or medical advice?

No. If a pet has eaten a plant, contact a vet or a poison-control line straight away.

Last reviewed: 2026-10-31. [About our data](https://floreboard.com/en/about/)


---

<!-- https://floreboard.com/en/guides/seasonal-flowers/ -->

# Seasonal flower chart

Which cut flowers, branches and foliage are in season in spring, summer, autumn and winter, plus year-round staples — for seasonal buying and design.

## [Spring](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/seasonal-flowers/spring/)

[Tulip](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/tulip/), [Chamomile](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/chamomile/), [Tree peony](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/peony/), [Peony (herbaceous)](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/herbaceous-peony/), [Amaryllis (Hippeastrum)](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/amaryllis/), [Bupleurum](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/bupleurum/), [Canterbury bells](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/campanula/), [Iris](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/iris/), [Delphinium](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/delphinium/), [Anemone](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/anemone/), [Freesia](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/freesia/), [Hyacinth](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/hyacinth/), [Lily of the valley](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/lilyvalley/), [Stock (Matthiola)](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/stock/), [Queen Anne's lace (Ammi)](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/queenannes/), [Protea](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/protea/), [Waxflower](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/waxflower/), [Clematis](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/clematis/), [Lupin](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/lupin/), [Snapdragon](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/snapdragon/), [Poppy](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/poppy/), [Daisy (marguerite)](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/daisy/), [Calendula](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/calendula/), [Cornflower](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/cornflower/), [Ranunculus](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/ranunculus/), [Sweet pea](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/sweetpea/), [Hellebore](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/hellebore/), [Allium](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/allium/), [Pincushion protea](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/leucospermum/), [Kangaroo paw](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/kangaroopaw/), [Grape hyacinth (Muscari)](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/muscari/), [Chinese iris](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/irislactea/)

## [Summer](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/seasonal-flowers/summer/)

[Sunflower](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/sunflower/), [Hydrangea](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/hydrangea/), [Chamomile](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/chamomile/), [Astrantia](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/astrantia/), [Love-lies-bleeding](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/amaranthus/), [Bells of Ireland](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/moluccella/), [Bupleurum](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/bupleurum/), [Siam tulip (Curcuma)](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/curcuma/), [Canterbury bells](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/campanula/), [Crocosmia](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/crocosmia/), [Iris](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/iris/), [Delphinium](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/delphinium/), [Globe amaranth](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/gomphrena/), [Gardenia](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/gardenia/), [Jasmine](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/jasmine/), [Lavender](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/lavender/), [Zinnia](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/zinnia/), [Dahlia](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/dahlia/), [Celosia](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/celosia/), [Lotus](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/lotus/), [Water lily](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/waterlily/), [Queen Anne's lace (Ammi)](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/queenannes/), [Clematis](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/clematis/), [Lupin](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/lupin/), [Salvia](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/salvia/), [Daisy (marguerite)](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/daisy/), [Cosmos](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/cosmos/), [Calendula](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/calendula/), [Marigold](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/marigold/), [Cornflower](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/cornflower/), [China aster](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/aster/), [Trachelium](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/trachelium/), [Gladiolus](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/gladiolus/), [Scabiosa](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/scabiosa/), [Agapanthus](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/agapanthus/), [Allium](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/allium/), [Astilbe](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/astilbe/), [Eryngium (sea holly)](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/eryngium/), [Kangaroo paw](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/kangaroopaw/), [Tuberose](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/tuberose/), [Solidago (goldenrod)](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/solidago/), [Veronica](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/veronica/), [Chinese iris](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/irislactea/), [Purple loosestrife](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/lythrum/), [Obedient plant](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/physostegia/), [Hollyhock](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/hollyhock/), [Daylily](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/hemerocallis/), [Hardy begonia](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/begonia/), [Arrowhead (sagittaria)](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/sagittaria/)

## [Autumn](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/seasonal-flowers/autumn/)

[Chrysanthemum](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/chrysanthemum/), [Love-lies-bleeding](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/amaranthus/), [Globe amaranth](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/gomphrena/), [Zinnia](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/zinnia/), [Dahlia](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/dahlia/), [Celosia](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/celosia/), [Cosmos](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/cosmos/), [Marigold](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/marigold/), [China aster](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/aster/), [Gladiolus](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/gladiolus/), [Solidago (goldenrod)](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/solidago/), [Obedient plant](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/physostegia/), [Red spider lily](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/lycoris/), [Hardy begonia](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/begonia/)

## [Winter](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/seasonal-flowers/winter/)

[Tulip](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/tulip/), [Narcissus (daffodil)](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/narcissus/), [Amaryllis (Hippeastrum)](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/amaryllis/), [Camellia](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/camellia/), [Anemone](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/anemone/), [Freesia](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/freesia/), [Hyacinth](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/hyacinth/), [Stock (Matthiola)](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/stock/), [Protea](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/protea/), [Waxflower](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/waxflower/), [Ranunculus](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/ranunculus/), [Hellebore](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/hellebore/), [Pincushion protea](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/leucospermum/)

For florists

## Turn this guide into a client design

We fill in the brief from this page. No stock yet? Load the sample flowers and see a recipe, quote and preview image in about a minute. New shops get 30 free credits.

Try it as a design — free

## Year-round

[Rose](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/rose/) · [Lily](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/lily/) · [Carnation](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/carnation/) · [Gerbera daisy](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/gerbera/) · [Lisianthus](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/lisianthus/) · [Baby's breath](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/gypsophila/) · [Bird of paradise](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/strelitzia/) · [Orchids (cut)](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/orchid/) · [Calla lily](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/calla/) · [Statice](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/statice/) · [Anthurium](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/anthurium/) · [Dendrobium orchid](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/dendrobium/) · [Craspedia (billy buttons)](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/craspedia/) · [Alstroemeria](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/alstroemeria/) · [Heliconia](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/heliconia/) · [Star of Bethlehem (Ornithogalum)](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/ornithogalum/) · [Bouvardia](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/bouvardia/)

Last reviewed: 2026-10-31. Seasons are for the Northern Hemisphere.


---

<!-- https://floreboard.com/en/guides/holiday-flower-prices/ -->

# Holiday flower price calendar

A florist's stocking calendar: which flowers rise in price before each holiday, typical surges and how far ahead to stock up, with 2026–2028 dates.

| Holiday | Market | Dates (2026–2028) | Flowers affected | Typical price | Stock up |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| Valentine's Day | Worldwide | 2026-02-14, 2027-02-14, 2028-02-14 | [Rose](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/rose/) | 2–3× | 21 days |
| Chinese New Year | Chinese mainland | 2026-02-17, 2027-02-06, 2028-01-26 | [Orchids (cut)](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/orchid/), [Pussy willow](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/pussywillow/), [Peach blossom](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/peach/), [Lily](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/lily/), [Bamboo](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/bamboo/) | 1.5–3× | 30 days |
| Women's Day | Chinese mainland | 2026-03-08, 2027-03-08, 2028-03-08 | [Rose](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/rose/), [Carnation](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/carnation/), [Lily](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/lily/) | 1.2–1.5× | 14 days |
| White Day | Japan, Korea | 2026-03-14, 2027-03-14, 2028-03-14 | [Rose](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/rose/) | 1.2–1.5× | 14 days |
| Qingming | Chinese mainland | 2026-04-05, 2027-04-05, 2028-04-04 | [Chrysanthemum](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/chrysanthemum/), [Lily](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/lily/) | 1.5–2× | 14 days |
| Mother's Day | Chinese mainland, United States, Japan | 2026-05-10, 2027-05-09, 2028-05-14 | [Carnation](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/carnation/), [Lily](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/lily/), [Rose](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/rose/) | 1.5–2.5× | 21 days |
| Parents' Day | Korea | 2026-05-08, 2027-05-08, 2028-05-08 | [Carnation](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/carnation/) | 1.5–2.5× | 21 days |
| 520 (May 20) | Chinese mainland | 2026-05-20, 2027-05-20, 2028-05-20 | [Rose](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/rose/) | 1.5–2× | 14 days |
| Qixi | Chinese mainland | 2026-08-19, 2027-08-08, 2028-08-26 | [Rose](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/rose/) | 1.5–2.5× | 21 days |
| Teachers' Day | Chinese mainland | 2026-09-10, 2027-09-10, 2028-09-10 | [Carnation](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/carnation/), [Sunflower](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/sunflower/) | 1.2–1.5× | 14 days |
| Christmas | Worldwide | 2026-12-25, 2027-12-25, 2028-12-25 | [Pine](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/pine/), [Holly](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/holly/), [Heavenly bamboo (nandina)](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/nandina/) | 1.2–1.6× | 30 days |

Surges are typical ranges of wholesale prices versus normal, for stocking and quoting; local markets vary. Floreboard alerts you about affected stock ahead of each holiday and flags it in design reviews.

## FAQ

### How much do roses cost before Valentine's Day?

Rose wholesale prices typically run 2–3× normal before Valentine's Day; lock in stock about three weeks ahead and quote at holiday prices.

### When is Mother's Day?

In the US, Chinese mainland and Japan it is the second Sunday of May (May 10, 2026; May 9, 2027). Korea celebrates Parents' Day on May 8.

For florists

## Turn this guide into a client design

We fill in the brief from this page. No stock yet? Load the sample flowers and see a recipe, quote and preview image in about a minute. New shops get 30 free credits.

Try it as a design — free

Last reviewed: 2026-10-31.


---

<!-- https://floreboard.com/en/guides/florist-pricing-and-margin/ -->

# How florists price arrangements: cost, markup and margin

How to price a flower arrangement: the four numbers that matter, a markup-to-margin table, two checks to run on every quote, and a worked example of what a holiday price surge does to your margin.

## Key facts

- Margin = (price − cost) ÷ price. A 3× markup is a 67% margin.
- Below 35% margin is too thin; materials under 30% of the price means room to upgrade.
- At 3× rose prices, the example bouquet's margin falls from 60% to 12% unless the price changes.

For florists

## Turn this guide into a client design

We fill in the brief from this page. No stock yet? Load the sample flowers and see a recipe, quote and preview image in about a minute. New shops get 30 free credits.

Try it as a design — free

## The four numbers

- **Price:** The client's budget, or the sum of each stem's retail price when there is no budget.

- **Cost:** Unit cost × number of stems, summed over the recipe.

- **Profit:** Price − cost. It can be negative.

- **Margin:** Profit ÷ price.

## Markup to margin

| Markup on cost | Margin | Cost as share of price |
| --- | --- | --- |
| 1.5× | 33% | 67% |
| 2× | 50% | 50% |
| 2.5× | 60% | 40% |
| 3× | 67% | 33% |
| 3.5× | 71% | 29% |
| 4× | 75% | 25% |
| 5× | 80% | 20% |

## Two checks worth running on every quote

- Margin below 35% of the price: too thin once labour, rent and waste are counted.

- Material cost below 30% of the price: there is room to upgrade the flowers or add stems.

That leaves a healthy band where materials are between 30% and 65% of the price.

## What a holiday does to a quote

Take a bouquet that normally costs 20 in materials — 12 of it roses — and sells for 50: a 60% margin. Before Valentine's Day, rose wholesale prices typically run 2–3× normal.

| Rose price | Material cost | Margin at the old price of 50 | Price needed to keep 60% |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| Normal | 20 | 60% | 50 |
| 2× | 32 | 36% | 80 |
| 3× | 44 | 12% | 110 |

Surges and lead times for every holiday: [Holiday flower price calendar](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/holiday-flower-prices/)

[Flower arrangement checklist before delivery](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/arrangement-checklist/) · [Floreboard pricing](https://floreboard.com/en/pricing/) · [How Floreboard works](https://floreboard.com/en/features/)

## FAQ

### What is the difference between markup and margin?

Markup is price divided by cost; margin is profit divided by price. A 3× markup is a 67% margin, and a 2× markup is a 50% margin.

### How much should a florist mark up flowers?

There is no single right number. Many shops start from two to three times wholesale cost on fresh flowers and adjust for labour, rent, waste and local competition. Check the result as a margin: Floreboard flags a quote when margin falls below 35%, or when materials are under 30% of the price.

### What margin is too low?

Floreboard warns when profit falls below 35% of the selling price, because labour, rent, delivery and waste still have to come out of it.

### How should florists price for Valentine's Day?

Rose wholesale prices typically run 2–3× normal. Quote at holiday prices, lock in stock about 21 days ahead, and offer designs that lean on flowers whose price has not moved.

### Should the price be based on the client's budget or on the stems?

Both ways work. Given a budget, design to a material cost that leaves your margin. Without one, price each stem at retail and add them up. Floreboard supports both and shows cost, profit and margin either way.

Last reviewed: 2026-10-31. Figures in the example are illustrative; currency does not matter. [About our data](https://floreboard.com/en/about/)


---

<!-- https://floreboard.com/en/guides/arrangement-checklist/ -->

# Flower arrangement checklist before delivery

23 checks professional florists run before delivery: balance, vase life, season, cultural taboos, pet safety, style rules, stock and margin — the same rules Floreboard applies automatically.

## Key facts

- Three focal flowers at most; support them with filler and foliage.
- Keep vase lives within about five days of each other.
- Check pets, scent, pollen, colour and number taboos for the recipient.
- Margin of at least 35% of the selling price.

For florists

## Turn this guide into a client design

We fill in the brief from this page. No stock yet? Load the sample flowers and see a recipe, quote and preview image in about a minute. New shops get 30 free credits.

Try it as a design — free

## Balance and structure

- No more than three kinds of focal flower. More than that and they compete; make the rest filler or foliage.
- A design of eight or more stems has some filler or foliage to support and finish the shape.
- A design of ten or more stems includes foliage to frame it.
- There is at least one focal flower, and filler plus foliage are not more than three quarters of the stems.
- The palette stays within two or three colour families; five or more looks cluttered.

## Vase life and season

- No flower lasts four days or less while the others last at least five days longer. If one does, deliver the same or next day and tell the client.
- Focal flowers are in season. Out-of-season stems cost more and vary in quality.
- Daffodils and other narcissus were conditioned alone for 12–24 hours before going in with other flowers.

## Culture and occasion

- No white or yellow chrysanthemums for a joyful occasion.
- No strongly scented flowers for hospital visits or condolences.
- No four stems, in total or of one focal flower, for Chinese, Japanese and Korean recipients — and no nine for Japanese recipients.
- For weddings, lily anthers are removed so pollen cannot stain the gown.

## The client

- Cats at home: no lilies, lily of the valley or azalea. Other flagged flowers come with a reminder to keep them out of reach.
- Nothing the client has said they dislike.
- Scent-sensitive clients get no strongly scented flowers; pollen-sensitive clients get no heavy-pollen flowers, or the anthers are removed.

## Style

- Ikenobo: 3–30 stems. Ohara: no more than 35.
- Chinese literati style: ideally no more than 9 stems and three kinds of material. Chinese zen style: ideally 5 stems or fewer, never more than 7, and two kinds.
- Biedermeier: at least 10 stems, ideally 15 or more, no more than three focal flowers, with a foliage collar. English garden style: at least three kinds of material, with foliage.

## Stock, price and margin

- Every stem in the recipe is in stock, in the quantity needed.
- Material cost does not exceed the client's budget.
- Margin is at least 35% of the selling price.
- Material cost is not below 30% of the price — if it is, there is room to upgrade the flowers.
- If a holiday is coming, affected flowers are quoted at holiday prices.

These are the thresholds Floreboard uses in its design review. They come from common trade practice and are prompts, not rules: a good designer breaks them on purpose.

[Floral design styles compared](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/floral-design-styles/) · [How florists price arrangements: cost, markup and margin](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/florist-pricing-and-margin/) · [Cut flower care and conditioning guide](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/cut-flower-care/) · [How many flowers to give: meanings and taboos by culture](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/flower-numbers/) · [How Floreboard works](https://floreboard.com/en/features/)

## FAQ

### How many kinds of flower should an arrangement have?

Up to three focal flowers, plus filler and foliage. Minimal styles use far fewer: two kinds for a Zen arrangement, three for a literati one.

### What profit margin should a florist aim for?

Floreboard warns below 35% of the selling price. Many shops aim higher on materials, because labour, rent and waste come out of the same margin.

### Does Floreboard run these checks automatically?

Yes. Every design is reviewed against these rules; serious problems, such as flowers toxic to a client's cat, trigger an automatic correction, and the rest are shown as suggestions.

Last reviewed: 2026-10-31. [About our data](https://floreboard.com/en/about/)


---

<!-- https://floreboard.com/en/guides/flower-vase-life/ -->

# Cut flower vase life chart

Common cut flowers ranked by vase life, to help florists combine stems and plan delivery times.

| Flower | Vase life | In season |
| --- | --- | --- |
| [Anthurium](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/anthurium/) | 14–21 days | Year-round |
| [Star of Bethlehem (Ornithogalum)](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/ornithogalum/) | 14–21 days | Year-round |
| [Orchids (cut)](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/orchid/) | 10–21 days | Year-round |
| [Carnation](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/carnation/) | 10–14 days | Year-round |
| [Bird of paradise](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/strelitzia/) | 10–14 days | Year-round |
| [Chrysanthemum](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/chrysanthemum/) | 10–14 days | Autumn |
| [Globe amaranth](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/gomphrena/) | 10–14 days | Summer, Autumn |
| [Statice](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/statice/) | 10–14 days | Year-round |
| [Dendrobium orchid](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/dendrobium/) | 10–14 days | Year-round |
| [Craspedia (billy buttons)](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/craspedia/) | 10–14 days | Year-round |
| [Protea](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/protea/) | 10–14 days | Winter, Spring |
| [Waxflower](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/waxflower/) | 10–14 days | Winter, Spring |
| [Alstroemeria](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/alstroemeria/) | 10–14 days | Year-round |
| [Allium](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/allium/) | 10–14 days | Spring, Summer |
| [Eryngium (sea holly)](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/eryngium/) | 10–14 days | Summer |
| [Pincushion protea](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/leucospermum/) | 10–14 days | Winter, Spring |
| [Kangaroo paw](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/kangaroopaw/) | 10–14 days | Spring, Summer |
| [Heliconia](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/heliconia/) | 10–14 days | Year-round |
| [Lisianthus](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/lisianthus/) | 7–14 days | Year-round |
| [Amaryllis (Hippeastrum)](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/amaryllis/) | 7–14 days | Winter, Spring |
| [Siam tulip (Curcuma)](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/curcuma/) | 7–14 days | Summer |
| [Lily](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/lily/) | 7–10 days | Year-round |
| [Baby's breath](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/gypsophila/) | 7–10 days | Year-round |
| [Astrantia](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/astrantia/) | 7–10 days | Summer |
| [Love-lies-bleeding](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/amaranthus/) | 7–10 days | Summer, Autumn |
| [Bells of Ireland](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/moluccella/) | 7–10 days | Summer |
| [Bupleurum](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/bupleurum/) | 7–10 days | Spring, Summer |
| [Calla lily](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/calla/) | 7–10 days | Year-round |
| [Stock (Matthiola)](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/stock/) | 7–10 days | Winter, Spring |
| [Lavender](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/lavender/) | 7–10 days | Summer |
| [Celosia](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/celosia/) | 7–10 days | Summer, Autumn |
| [Snapdragon](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/snapdragon/) | 7–10 days | Spring |
| [Marigold](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/marigold/) | 7–10 days | Summer, Autumn |
| [China aster](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/aster/) | 7–10 days | Summer, Autumn |
| [Trachelium](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/trachelium/) | 7–10 days | Summer |
| [Gladiolus](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/gladiolus/) | 7–10 days | Summer, Autumn |
| [Hellebore](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/hellebore/) | 7–10 days | Winter, Spring |
| [Agapanthus](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/agapanthus/) | 7–10 days | Summer |
| [Solidago (goldenrod)](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/solidago/) | 7–10 days | Summer, Autumn |
| [Bouvardia](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/bouvardia/) | 7–10 days | Year-round |
| [Obedient plant](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/physostegia/) | 7–10 days | Summer, Autumn |
| [Sunflower](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/sunflower/) | 6–10 days | Summer |
| [Gerbera daisy](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/gerbera/) | 6–10 days | Year-round |
| [Canterbury bells](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/campanula/) | 5–8 days | Spring, Summer |
| [Crocosmia](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/crocosmia/) | 5–8 days | Summer |
| [Delphinium](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/delphinium/) | 5–8 days | Spring, Summer |
| [Freesia](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/freesia/) | 5–8 days | Winter, Spring |
| [Salvia](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/salvia/) | 5–8 days | Summer |
| [Ranunculus](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/ranunculus/) | 5–8 days | Winter, Spring |
| [Rose](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/rose/) | 5–7 days | Year-round |
| [Hydrangea](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/hydrangea/) | 5–7 days | Summer |
| [Chamomile](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/chamomile/) | 5–7 days | Spring, Summer |
| [Peony (herbaceous)](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/herbaceous-peony/) | 5–7 days | Spring |
| [Hyacinth](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/hyacinth/) | 5–7 days | Winter, Spring |
| [Zinnia](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/zinnia/) | 5–7 days | Summer, Autumn |
| [Queen Anne's lace (Ammi)](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/queenannes/) | 5–7 days | Spring, Summer |
| [Lupin](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/lupin/) | 5–7 days | Spring, Summer |
| [Daisy (marguerite)](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/daisy/) | 5–7 days | Spring, Summer |
| [Cosmos](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/cosmos/) | 5–7 days | Summer, Autumn |
| [Calendula](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/calendula/) | 5–7 days | Spring, Summer |
| [Cornflower](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/cornflower/) | 5–7 days | Spring, Summer |
| [Scabiosa](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/scabiosa/) | 5–7 days | Summer |
| [Astilbe](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/astilbe/) | 5–7 days | Summer |
| [Tuberose](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/tuberose/) | 5–7 days | Summer |
| [Veronica](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/veronica/) | 5–7 days | Summer |
| [Purple loosestrife](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/lythrum/) | 5–7 days | Summer |
| [Hollyhock](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/hollyhock/) | 5–7 days | Summer |
| [Daylily](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/hemerocallis/) | 5–7 days | Summer |
| [Red spider lily](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/lycoris/) | 5–7 days | Autumn |
| [Arrowhead (sagittaria)](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/sagittaria/) | 5–7 days | Summer |
| [Tulip](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/tulip/) | 4–7 days | Winter, Spring |
| [Narcissus (daffodil)](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/narcissus/) | 4–7 days | Winter |
| [Lily of the valley](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/lilyvalley/) | 4–7 days | Spring |
| [Sweet pea](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/sweetpea/) | 4–7 days | Spring |
| [Grape hyacinth (Muscari)](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/muscari/) | 4–7 days | Spring |
| [Iris](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/iris/) | 4–6 days | Spring, Summer |
| [Dahlia](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/dahlia/) | 4–6 days | Summer, Autumn |
| [Clematis](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/clematis/) | 4–6 days | Spring, Summer |
| [Anemone](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/anemone/) | 3–6 days | Winter, Spring |
| [Chinese iris](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/irislactea/) | 3–6 days | Spring, Summer |
| [Tree peony](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/peony/) | 3–5 days | Spring |
| [Camellia](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/camellia/) | 3–5 days | Winter |
| [Gardenia](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/gardenia/) | 3–5 days | Summer |
| [Jasmine](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/jasmine/) | 3–5 days | Summer |
| [Hardy begonia](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/begonia/) | 3–5 days | Summer, Autumn |
| [Lotus](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/lotus/) | 3–4 days | Summer |
| [Water lily](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/waterlily/) | 2–4 days | Summer |
| [Poppy](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/poppy/) | 2–4 days | Spring |

## FAQ

### Which cut flowers last the longest?

In this chart: Anthurium, Star of Bethlehem (Ornithogalum), Carnation.

### Which cut flowers fade fastest?

In this chart: Water lily, Poppy, Tree peony — when mixing them with long-lasting stems, deliver the same or next day.

### Can daffodils go in a vase with other flowers?

Yes, but condition them alone for 12–24 hours first; their sap otherwise shortens the life of the other flowers.

For florists

## Turn this guide into a client design

We fill in the brief from this page. No stock yet? Load the sample flowers and see a recipe, quote and preview image in about a minute. New shops get 30 free credits.

Try it as a design — free

Last reviewed: 2026-10-31. Reference values from common trade practice. Real results vary with variety, origin and conditioning.


---

<!-- https://floreboard.com/en/guides/long-lasting-flowers/ -->

# Longest-lasting cut flowers

18 cut flowers that typically last ten days or more in a vase, with season, fragrance and pet safety — for weekly contract flowers, gifts that travel and bouquets meant to last.

## Key facts

- Longest in our data: Anthurium (14–21 days), Star of Bethlehem (Ornithogalum) (14–21 days), Orchids (cut) (10–21 days).
- 10 of the 18 are available year-round.
- A bouquet only lasts as long as its shortest-lived flower looks good.

For florists

## Turn this guide into a client design

We fill in the brief from this page. No stock yet? Load the sample flowers and see a recipe, quote and preview image in about a minute. New shops get 30 free credits.

Try it as a design — free

## Ten days or more

| Flower | Vase life | In season | Fragrance | Pets |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| [Anthurium](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/anthurium/) | 14–21 days | Year-round | None | mildly toxic |
| [Star of Bethlehem (Ornithogalum)](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/ornithogalum/) | 14–21 days | Year-round | None | mildly toxic |
| [Orchids (cut)](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/orchid/) | 10–21 days | Year-round | Light | ✓ ASPCA non-toxic |
| [Carnation](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/carnation/) | 10–14 days | Year-round | Light | mildly toxic |
| [Bird of paradise](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/strelitzia/) | 10–14 days | Year-round | None | mildly toxic |
| [Chrysanthemum](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/chrysanthemum/) | 10–14 days | Autumn | Light | mildly toxic |
| [Globe amaranth](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/gomphrena/) | 10–14 days | Summer, Autumn | None | — |
| [Statice](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/statice/) | 10–14 days | Year-round | None | — |
| [Dendrobium orchid](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/dendrobium/) | 10–14 days | Year-round | None | — |
| [Craspedia (billy buttons)](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/craspedia/) | 10–14 days | Year-round | None | — |
| [Protea](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/protea/) | 10–14 days | Winter, Spring | None | — |
| [Waxflower](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/waxflower/) | 10–14 days | Winter, Spring | Light | — |
| [Alstroemeria](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/alstroemeria/) | 10–14 days | Year-round | None | ✓ ASPCA non-toxic |
| [Allium](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/allium/) | 10–14 days | Spring, Summer | Light | mildly toxic |
| [Eryngium (sea holly)](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/eryngium/) | 10–14 days | Summer | None | — |
| [Pincushion protea](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/leucospermum/) | 10–14 days | Winter, Spring | None | — |
| [Kangaroo paw](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/kangaroopaw/) | 10–14 days | Spring, Summer | None | — |
| [Heliconia](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/heliconia/) | 10–14 days | Year-round | None | — |

## A week or more

[Lily](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/lily/) · [Lisianthus](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/lisianthus/) · [Baby's breath](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/gypsophila/) · [Astrantia](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/astrantia/) · [Love-lies-bleeding](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/amaranthus/) · [Amaryllis (Hippeastrum)](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/amaryllis/) · [Bells of Ireland](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/moluccella/) · [Bupleurum](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/bupleurum/) · [Siam tulip (Curcuma)](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/curcuma/) · [Calla lily](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/calla/) · [Stock (Matthiola)](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/stock/) · [Lavender](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/lavender/) · [Celosia](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/celosia/) · [Snapdragon](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/snapdragon/) · [Marigold](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/marigold/) · [China aster](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/aster/) · [Trachelium](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/trachelium/) · [Gladiolus](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/gladiolus/) · [Hellebore](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/hellebore/) · [Agapanthus](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/agapanthus/) · [Solidago (goldenrod)](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/solidago/) · [Bouvardia](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/bouvardia/) · [Obedient plant](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/physostegia/)

## How to use this list

- Weekly contract flowers for offices, hotels and restaurants: build the recipe from the ten-day list so it still looks fresh on day seven.

- Mixed bouquets: keep the vase lives close together. Floreboard flags a design when one flower lasts four days or less and at least five days less than the rest.

- Gifts that will travel or sit before being opened: choose from this list and skip the short-lived flowers.

[Cut flower vase life chart](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/flower-vase-life/) · [Cut flower care and conditioning guide](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/cut-flower-care/) · [Flowers that dry well](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/flowers-for-drying/)

## FAQ

### Which cut flowers last the longest?

In our data: anthurium (14–21 days), star of bethlehem (ornithogalum) (14–21 days), orchids (cut) (10–21 days), carnation (10–14 days), bird of paradise (10–14 days), chrysanthemum (10–14 days).

### Which long-lasting flowers are available all year?

Anthurium, Star of Bethlehem (Ornithogalum), Orchids (cut), Carnation, Bird of paradise, Statice, Dendrobium orchid, Craspedia (billy buttons), Alstroemeria, Heliconia.

### Which flowers last two weeks in a vase?

Those with a typical range reaching 14 days or more: anthurium, star of bethlehem (ornithogalum), orchids (cut), carnation, bird of paradise, chrysanthemum, globe amaranth, statice, dendrobium orchid, craspedia (billy buttons), protea, waxflower, alstroemeria, allium, eryngium (sea holly), pincushion protea, kangaroo paw, heliconia.

### Which flowers should I avoid if I want a long-lasting bouquet?

The shortest-lived: tulip, tree peony, narcissus (daffodil), camellia, iris, anemone, lily of the valley, gardenia, jasmine, dahlia, lotus, water lily, clematis, poppy, sweet pea, grape hyacinth (muscari), chinese iris, hardy begonia. One short-lived stem makes the whole bouquet look tired early.

Last reviewed: 2026-10-31. Reference values from common trade practice. Real results vary with variety, origin and conditioning. [About our data](https://floreboard.com/en/about/)


---

<!-- https://floreboard.com/en/guides/fragrant-flowers/ -->

# Fragrant cut flowers

19 strongly scented cut flowers and branches with their seasons and vase life, the lightly scented alternatives, and where fragrance is welcome or best avoided.

## Key facts

- Strongest: lily, narcissus (daffodil), wintersweet, freesia, hyacinth, lily of the valley and 13 more.
- Avoid strong scent for hospital visits, condolences and dining tables.

For florists

## Turn this guide into a client design

We fill in the brief from this page. No stock yet? Load the sample flowers and see a recipe, quote and preview image in about a minute. New shops get 30 free credits.

Try it as a design — free

## Strongly scented

| Flower | Vase life | In season | Pets |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| [Lily](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/lily/) | 7–10 days | Year-round | ⚠ toxic to cats |
| [Narcissus (daffodil)](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/narcissus/) | 4–7 days | Winter | mildly toxic |
| [Wintersweet](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/wintersweet/) | 7–14 days | Winter | — |
| [Freesia](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/freesia/) | 5–8 days | Winter, Spring | — |
| [Hyacinth](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/hyacinth/) | 5–7 days | Winter, Spring | mildly toxic |
| [Lily of the valley](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/lilyvalley/) | 4–7 days | Spring | ⚠ toxic to cats |
| [Stock (Matthiola)](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/stock/) | 7–10 days | Winter, Spring | — |
| [Gardenia](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/gardenia/) | 3–5 days | Summer | mildly toxic |
| [Jasmine](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/jasmine/) | 3–5 days | Summer | — |
| [Lavender](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/lavender/) | 7–10 days | Summer | mildly toxic |
| [Marigold](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/marigold/) | 7–10 days | Summer, Autumn | — |
| [Wisteria](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/wisteria/) | 2–4 days | Spring | mildly toxic |
| [Osmanthus](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/osmanthus/) | 3–5 days | Autumn | — |
| [Sweet pea](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/sweetpea/) | 4–7 days | Spring | mildly toxic |
| [Tuberose](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/tuberose/) | 5–7 days | Summer | — |
| [Lilac](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/lilac/) | 3–5 days | Spring | — |
| [Mugwort](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/artemisia/) | 5–7 days | Summer | — |
| [Buddha’s hand citron](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/buddhahand/) | 14–30 days | Autumn, Winter | — |
| [Winter daphne](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/daphne/) | 5–7 days | Winter, Spring | mildly toxic |

## Lightly scented

[Rose](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/rose/) · [Carnation](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/carnation/) · [Baby's breath](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/gypsophila/) · [Chamomile](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/chamomile/) · [Orchids (cut)](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/orchid/) · [Tree peony](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/peony/) · [Peony (herbaceous)](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/herbaceous-peony/) · [Chrysanthemum](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/chrysanthemum/) · [Iris](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/iris/) · [Lotus](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/lotus/) · [Water lily](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/waterlily/) · [Waxflower](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/waxflower/) · [Salvia](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/salvia/) · [Calendula](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/calendula/) · [Allium](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/allium/) · [Grape hyacinth (Muscari)](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/muscari/) · [Bouvardia](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/bouvardia/) · [Chinese iris](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/irislactea/)

## Using scent well

- One scented element is usually enough. Two strong scents in one design tend to fight.

- Warm rooms intensify fragrance, and some flowers, such as tuberose, smell stronger at night.

- Ask before you send: fragrance is the most common reason a client wants a flower left out.

[Unscented and low-pollen flowers](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/unscented-flowers/) · [Flowers for a hospital visit: what to send and avoid](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/hospital-flowers/)

## FAQ

### Which cut flowers have the strongest scent?

Lily, Narcissus (daffodil), Wintersweet, Freesia, Hyacinth, Lily of the valley, Stock (Matthiola), Gardenia, Jasmine, Lavender, Marigold, Wisteria, Osmanthus, Sweet pea, Tuberose, Lilac, Mugwort, Buddha’s hand citron, Winter daphne.

### Which fragrant flowers are in season in each season?

Spring: freesia, hyacinth, lily of the valley, stock (matthiola), wisteria, sweet pea, lilac, winter daphne; Summer: gardenia, jasmine, lavender, marigold, tuberose, mugwort; Autumn: marigold, osmanthus, buddha’s hand citron; Winter: narcissus (daffodil), wintersweet, freesia, hyacinth, stock (matthiola), buddha’s hand citron, winter daphne.

### When should strongly scented flowers be avoided?

Hospital visits and condolences, dining tables and restaurants, small or closed rooms, and anyone who is sensitive to fragrance.

### Do roses smell?

Most commercial cut roses are only lightly scented; they are bred for vase life and shape. Garden-type varieties are the fragrant exception.

Last reviewed: 2026-10-31. Reference values from common trade practice. Real results vary with variety, origin and conditioning. [About our data](https://floreboard.com/en/about/)


---

<!-- https://floreboard.com/en/guides/unscented-flowers/ -->

# Unscented and low-pollen flowers

58 cut flowers with little or no scent and no heavy pollen — for scent-sensitive clients, dining tables and hospitals — with vase life, season and pet safety, plus what to avoid.

| Flower | Vase life | In season | Pets |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| [Anthurium](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/anthurium/) | 14–21 days | Year-round | mildly toxic |
| [Star of Bethlehem (Ornithogalum)](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/ornithogalum/) | 14–21 days | Year-round | mildly toxic |
| [Bird of paradise](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/strelitzia/) | 10–14 days | Year-round | mildly toxic |
| [Globe amaranth](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/gomphrena/) | 10–14 days | Summer, Autumn | — |
| [Statice](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/statice/) | 10–14 days | Year-round | — |
| [Dendrobium orchid](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/dendrobium/) | 10–14 days | Year-round | — |
| [Craspedia (billy buttons)](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/craspedia/) | 10–14 days | Year-round | — |
| [Protea](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/protea/) | 10–14 days | Winter, Spring | — |
| [Alstroemeria](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/alstroemeria/) | 10–14 days | Year-round | ✓ ASPCA non-toxic |
| [Eryngium (sea holly)](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/eryngium/) | 10–14 days | Summer | — |
| [Pincushion protea](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/leucospermum/) | 10–14 days | Winter, Spring | — |
| [Kangaroo paw](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/kangaroopaw/) | 10–14 days | Spring, Summer | — |
| [Heliconia](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/heliconia/) | 10–14 days | Year-round | — |
| [Lisianthus](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/lisianthus/) | 7–14 days | Year-round | — |
| [Astrantia](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/astrantia/) | 7–10 days | Summer | — |
| [Love-lies-bleeding](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/amaranthus/) | 7–10 days | Summer, Autumn | — |
| [Amaryllis (Hippeastrum)](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/amaryllis/) | 7–14 days | Winter, Spring | mildly toxic |
| [Bells of Ireland](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/moluccella/) | 7–10 days | Summer | — |
| [Bupleurum](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/bupleurum/) | 7–10 days | Spring, Summer | — |
| [Siam tulip (Curcuma)](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/curcuma/) | 7–14 days | Summer | — |
| [Calla lily](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/calla/) | 7–10 days | Year-round | mildly toxic |
| [Celosia](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/celosia/) | 7–10 days | Summer, Autumn | ✓ ASPCA non-toxic |
| [Snapdragon](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/snapdragon/) | 7–10 days | Spring | ✓ ASPCA non-toxic |
| [China aster](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/aster/) | 7–10 days | Summer, Autumn | ✓ ASPCA non-toxic |
| [Trachelium](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/trachelium/) | 7–10 days | Summer | — |
| [Gladiolus](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/gladiolus/) | 7–10 days | Summer, Autumn | mildly toxic |
| [Hellebore](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/hellebore/) | 7–10 days | Winter, Spring | mildly toxic |
| [Agapanthus](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/agapanthus/) | 7–10 days | Summer | — |
| [Solidago (goldenrod)](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/solidago/) | 7–10 days | Summer, Autumn | — |
| [Obedient plant](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/physostegia/) | 7–10 days | Summer, Autumn | — |
| [Sunflower](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/sunflower/) | 6–10 days | Summer | ✓ ASPCA non-toxic |
| [Gerbera daisy](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/gerbera/) | 6–10 days | Year-round | ✓ ASPCA non-toxic |
| [Hydrangea](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/hydrangea/) | 5–7 days | Summer | mildly toxic |
| [Canterbury bells](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/campanula/) | 5–8 days | Spring, Summer | — |
| [Crocosmia](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/crocosmia/) | 5–8 days | Summer | — |
| [Delphinium](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/delphinium/) | 5–8 days | Spring, Summer | mildly toxic |
| [Zinnia](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/zinnia/) | 5–7 days | Summer, Autumn | ✓ ASPCA non-toxic |
| [Queen Anne's lace (Ammi)](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/queenannes/) | 5–7 days | Spring, Summer | — |
| [Lupin](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/lupin/) | 5–7 days | Spring, Summer | mildly toxic |
| [Daisy (marguerite)](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/daisy/) | 5–7 days | Spring, Summer | mildly toxic |
| [Cosmos](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/cosmos/) | 5–7 days | Summer, Autumn | — |
| [Cornflower](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/cornflower/) | 5–7 days | Spring, Summer | — |
| [Ranunculus](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/ranunculus/) | 5–8 days | Winter, Spring | mildly toxic |
| [Scabiosa](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/scabiosa/) | 5–7 days | Summer | — |
| [Astilbe](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/astilbe/) | 5–7 days | Summer | — |
| [Veronica](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/veronica/) | 5–7 days | Summer | — |
| [Purple loosestrife](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/lythrum/) | 5–7 days | Summer | — |
| [Hollyhock](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/hollyhock/) | 5–7 days | Summer | — |
| [Daylily](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/hemerocallis/) | 5–7 days | Summer | ⚠ toxic to cats |
| [Red spider lily](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/lycoris/) | 5–7 days | Autumn | mildly toxic |
| [Arrowhead (sagittaria)](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/sagittaria/) | 5–7 days | Summer | — |
| [Tulip](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/tulip/) | 4–7 days | Winter, Spring | mildly toxic |
| [Dahlia](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/dahlia/) | 4–6 days | Summer, Autumn | mildly toxic |
| [Clematis](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/clematis/) | 4–6 days | Spring, Summer | mildly toxic |
| [Camellia](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/camellia/) | 3–5 days | Winter | ✓ ASPCA non-toxic |
| [Anemone](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/anemone/) | 3–6 days | Winter, Spring | mildly toxic |
| [Hardy begonia](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/begonia/) | 3–5 days | Summer, Autumn | mildly toxic |
| [Poppy](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/poppy/) | 2–4 days | Spring | mildly toxic |

## Avoid

- Strongly scented: [Lily](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/lily/), [Narcissus (daffodil)](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/narcissus/), [Wintersweet](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/wintersweet/), [Freesia](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/freesia/), [Hyacinth](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/hyacinth/), [Lily of the valley](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/lilyvalley/), [Stock (Matthiola)](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/stock/), [Gardenia](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/gardenia/), [Jasmine](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/jasmine/), [Lavender](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/lavender/), [Marigold](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/marigold/), [Wisteria](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/wisteria/), [Osmanthus](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/osmanthus/), [Sweet pea](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/sweetpea/), [Tuberose](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/tuberose/), [Lilac](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/lilac/), [Mugwort](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/artemisia/), [Buddha’s hand citron](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/buddhahand/), [Winter daphne](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/daphne/)

- Heavy pollen: [Lily](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/lily/)

For florists

## Turn this guide into a client design

We fill in the brief from this page. No stock yet? Load the sample flowers and see a recipe, quote and preview image in about a minute. New shops get 30 free credits.

Try it as a design — free

In Floreboard you can mark a client as scent- or pollen-sensitive; every later design for them flags these flowers automatically.

## FAQ

### What flowers suit someone sensitive to scent?

Choose flowers with little or no scent, such as gerbera daisy, lisianthus, bird of paradise, calla lily, statice, anthurium, and avoid strongly scented ones like lily, narcissus (daffodil), wintersweet, freesia, hyacinth.

### Why use unscented flowers on dining tables?

Strong fragrance competes with food and wine, so restaurants and banquet tables usually use unscented or lightly scented flowers.

### Are unscented flowers allergy-free?

Not necessarily — pollen is a common trigger too. This list excludes heavy-pollen flowers, but people with severe allergies should still check individually.

Last reviewed: 2026-10-31. Reference values from common trade practice. Real results vary with variety, origin and conditioning.


---

<!-- https://floreboard.com/en/guides/flowers-by-color/ -->

# Flowers by colour

Find cut flowers by colour. 88 flowers sorted into eight colour families, each with season, vase life, fragrance and pet safety.

## Key facts

- Rarest colour: green (17 flowers). Most common: white (68).
- Only naturally occurring colours are counted; dyed stems are not.

For florists

## Turn this guide into a client design

We fill in the brief from this page. No stock yet? Load the sample flowers and see a recipe, quote and preview image in about a minute. New shops get 30 free credits.

Try it as a design — free

| Colour | Cut flowers | Examples |
| --- | --- | --- |
| [Red](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/flowers-by-color/red/) | 36 | [Rose](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/rose/), [Lily](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/lily/), [Tulip](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/tulip/), [Carnation](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/carnation/), [Gerbera daisy](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/gerbera/), [Tree peony](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/peony/), [Peony (herbaceous)](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/herbaceous-peony/), [Chrysanthemum](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/chrysanthemum/)… |
| [Pink](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/flowers-by-color/pink/) | 56 | [Rose](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/rose/), [Hydrangea](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/hydrangea/), [Lily](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/lily/), [Tulip](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/tulip/), [Carnation](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/carnation/), [Gerbera daisy](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/gerbera/), [Lisianthus](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/lisianthus/), [Baby's breath](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/gypsophila/)… |
| [White](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/flowers-by-color/white/) | 68 | [Rose](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/rose/), [Hydrangea](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/hydrangea/), [Lily](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/lily/), [Tulip](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/tulip/), [Carnation](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/carnation/), [Gerbera daisy](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/gerbera/), [Lisianthus](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/lisianthus/), [Baby's breath](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/gypsophila/)… |
| [Yellow](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/flowers-by-color/yellow/) | 39 | [Rose](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/rose/), [Sunflower](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/sunflower/), [Lily](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/lily/), [Tulip](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/tulip/), [Carnation](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/carnation/), [Gerbera daisy](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/gerbera/), [Orchids (cut)](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/orchid/), [Tree peony](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/peony/)… |
| [Orange](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/flowers-by-color/orange/) | 26 | [Rose](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/rose/), [Sunflower](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/sunflower/), [Lily](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/lily/), [Tulip](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/tulip/), [Carnation](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/carnation/), [Gerbera daisy](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/gerbera/), [Bird of paradise](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/strelitzia/), [Chrysanthemum](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/chrysanthemum/)… |
| [Purple](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/flowers-by-color/purple/) | 42 | [Rose](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/rose/), [Hydrangea](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/hydrangea/), [Tulip](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/tulip/), [Carnation](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/carnation/), [Lisianthus](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/lisianthus/), [Orchids (cut)](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/orchid/), [Tree peony](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/peony/), [Chrysanthemum](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/chrysanthemum/)… |
| [Blue](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/flowers-by-color/blue/) | 19 | [Hydrangea](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/hydrangea/), [Canterbury bells](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/campanula/), [Iris](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/iris/), [Delphinium](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/delphinium/), [Anemone](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/anemone/), [Hyacinth](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/hyacinth/), [Statice](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/statice/), [Water lily](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/waterlily/)… |
| [Green](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/flowers-by-color/green/) | 17 | [Rose](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/rose/), [Hydrangea](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/hydrangea/), [Carnation](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/carnation/), [Lisianthus](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/lisianthus/), [Orchids (cut)](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/orchid/), [Chrysanthemum](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/chrysanthemum/), [Love-lies-bleeding](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/amaranthus/), [Bells of Ireland](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/moluccella/)… |

[Flower colour meanings across cultures](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/flower-color-meanings/) · [Flower meanings: the language of flowers](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/flower-meanings/)

## FAQ

### Which flower colour is rarest?

In our guide, green: only 17 of 88 cut flowers come in it naturally.

### Which flowers come in the most colours?

Rose, Carnation, Chrysanthemum, Zinnia, Gladiolus, Tulip.

### How many colours should one arrangement use?

Two or three colour families usually read as intentional. Floreboard flags a design when the flowers span five or more families.

Last reviewed: 2026-10-31. [About our data](https://floreboard.com/en/about/)


---

<!-- https://floreboard.com/en/guides/foliage-and-branches/ -->

# Foliage and branches for arrangements

20 foliages and 35 branches used in floristry, with vase life, season, pet safety and a handling note for each — plus how to split, force and deliver flowering branches.

## Key facts

- Foliage frames the design and hides the mechanics; branches give line and height.
- Split woody ends before conditioning — an intact woody stem drinks poorly.
- 39 of the 69 last ten days or more.

For florists

## Turn this guide into a client design

We fill in the brief from this page. No stock yet? Load the sample flowers and see a recipe, quote and preview image in about a minute. New shops get 30 free credits.

Try it as a design — free

## Foliage

| Flower | Vase life | In season | Pets | Handling |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| [Eucalyptus](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/eucalyptus/) | 10–14 days | Year-round | mildly toxic | Strip the lower leaves. The resin is sticky — clean snips with alcohol afterwards. Dries beautifully, keeping its scent and colour. |
| [Monstera leaf](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/monstera/) | 10–14 days | Year-round | mildly toxic | Wipe the leaves clean; a single leaf lasts weeks in water. The sap can irritate skin. |
| [Asparagus fern](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/asparagus/) | 10–14 days | Year-round | mildly toxic | Sheds its fine needles when old or dry: mist it and keep it away from heat. Mind the small thorns on the stems. |
| [Palm leaves](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/palm/) | 14–21 days | Year-round | — | Fronds can be trimmed into shapes with scissors. Tips brown in dry air; dried and bleached palm is also widely used. |
| [Ivy](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/ivy/) | 10–14 days | Year-round | mildly toxic | Condition by submerging whole trails in water for half an hour. Holds up well out of water, which makes it useful for wired and trailing work. |
| [Fatsia](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/fatsia/) | 10–14 days | Year-round | — | Large glossy leaves for collars and for covering mechanics. Wipe them clean before use. |
| [Dusty miller](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/dustymiller/) | 10–14 days | Year-round | — | Wilts easily: dip the cut ends in hot water or sear them, then hydrate overnight before using. Keep the felted leaves dry. |
| [Salal](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/salal/) | 14–21 days | Year-round | — | Sold as "lemon leaf". Sturdy and long-lasting; wipe the leaves for a clean shine. |
| [Leatherleaf fern](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/leatherleaf/) | 10–14 days | Year-round | — | The classic base foliage for foam work. Mist it — the fronds crisp in hot, dry rooms. |
| [Aspidistra](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/aspidistra/) | 14–21 days | Year-round | — | The staple leaf for manipulation: it can be folded, looped, rolled or split, and lasts for weeks. |
| [Pittosporum](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/pittosporum/) | 10–14 days | Year-round | — | Woody stems: strip the lower leaves and recut. Variegated forms brighten dark designs. |
| [Myrtle](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/myrtle/) | 10–14 days | Year-round | — | Aromatic, woody and long-lasting: split the stem ends and strip the lower leaves. |
| [Loquat leaves](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/loquat/) | 14–21 days | Year-round | — | Large, stiff, deeply veined leaves with a rusty felted underside — bold texture for Chinese vase work and still-life pieces. Very long-lasting. |
| [Hosta leaves](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/hosta/) | 7–14 days | Summer | mildly toxic | Broad ribbed leaves, plain or cream-edged, used at the base of summer arrangements to cover the mechanics. Submerge new leaves for an hour before use. |
| [Cattail](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/typha/) | 10–21 days | Summer, Autumn | — | Long strap leaves bend into arcs and loops — a classic for water-side and summer pieces; the brown spikes dry well. Spray spikes with hairspray or they burst into fluff. |
| [Sweet flag (acorus)](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/acorus/) | 7–14 days | Spring, Summer | — | Sword-shaped aromatic leaves for upright lines; the Dragon Boat Festival classic with mugwort. Not the same plant as the Japanese water iris. |
| [Mugwort](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/artemisia/) | 5–7 days | Summer | — | Silvery, strongly scented leaves; wilts fast, so condition in deep cool water before arranging. Pairs with sweet flag for the Dragon Boat Festival. |
| [Sacred lily (rohdea)](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/rohdea/) | 14–30 days | Year-round | mildly toxic | Thick, arching evergreen leaves (sometimes with a red berry cluster) for formal and New Year pieces; in Ikenobo it is a classic subject. Very long-lasting. |
| [Powdery thalia](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/thalia/) | 7–14 days | Summer | — | Tall stems with broad blue-grey leaves and, in summer, wiry purple flower stalks; gives lean, upright lines in water and lotus pieces. |
| [Ti plant (cordyline)](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/cordyline/) | 14–21 days | Year-round | mildly toxic | Long glossy leaves in burgundy, pink or green; fold, loop or use flat as a bold colour block. Very long-lasting; wipe leaves to restore the shine. |

## Branches

| Flower | Vase life | In season | Fragrance | Pets | Handling |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| [Plum blossom](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/plum/) | 7–10 days | Winter | Light | — | Cut in tight bud and split or crush the woody ends. Buds open indoors in warmth within days; mist them so they do not dry out. |
| [Wintersweet](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/wintersweet/) | 7–14 days | Winter | Strong | — | Recut the woody stem and keep it in clean water. Buds open in warmth; keep branches away from heating vents. |
| [Silver wattle (mimosa)](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/acacia/) | 5–10 days | Winter, Spring | Light | — | Remove foliage below the waterline, recut the woody stem and keep cool. The small flower heads dry quickly in warm air. |
| [Cherry blossom](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/cherry/) | 5–7 days | Spring | Light | — | Deliver in bud: once open, the petals fall within days. Split the woody ends and stand in deep water. |
| [Peach blossom](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/peach/) | 5–10 days | Spring | Light | — | Sold in bud for Lunar New Year. Split the stems, and hold in a cool place to slow opening or a warm one to speed it up. |
| [Crabapple blossom](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/crabapple/) | 5–7 days | Spring | Light | — | Cut in bud and split the woody ends; the flowers open in a warm room and last about a week. |
| [Bamboo](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/bamboo/) | 14–30 days | Year-round | None | — | The culms last for weeks, but cut leaves curl within a day or two unless the hollow culm is filled with water; mist often. "Lucky bamboo" sold in shops is a Dracaena, not true bamboo. |
| [Pine](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/pine/) | 14–30 days | Year-round | Light | — | Lasts for weeks with very little water. Resin gums up blades — clean them with alcohol. A New Year staple in both China and Japan. |
| [Maple branches](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/maple/) | 7–14 days | Autumn | None | — | Split the woody ends, condition in deep water and mist the leaves; they crisp quickly in dry, heated rooms. |
| [Magnolia](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/magnolia/) | 3–5 days | Spring | Light | — | Cut in furry bud and split the stems. The petals bruise brown at a touch, so place the branch once and leave it. |
| [Wisteria](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/wisteria/) | 2–4 days | Spring | Strong | mildly toxic | Notoriously hard to hydrate. Ikebana practice dips the cut end in alcohol or sears it; even so, use it the same day. |
| [Forsythia](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/forsythia/) | 7–10 days | Spring | None | — | The easiest branch to force: cut in bud in late winter, bring into a warm room, and it flowers in one to two weeks. |
| [Willow](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/willow/) | 10–14 days | Spring | None | — | In water it roots and leafs out. For structure that stays as it is, keep the stems dry; curly willow can be bent while fresh. |
| [Pussy willow](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/pussywillow/) | 14–30 days | Winter, Spring | None | — | Keep it dry — no water — and the catkins hold for months. In water they flower, shed pollen and the stems root. |
| [Red-twig dogwood](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/dogwood/) | 14–30 days | Winter | None | — | Bare red winter stems for colour and structure. They last for weeks with or without water and can be bent into shapes while fresh. |
| [Azalea](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/azalea/) | 5–7 days | Spring | None | ⚠ toxic to cats | Split the woody ends and condition in deep water. The flowers bruise easily, so position the branch before the buds open fully. |
| [Spiraea](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/spiraea/) | 5–8 days | Spring | None | — | Supple arching lines, much used in ikebana and Japanese-style bridal work. The tiny petals shower as it ages, so use it for events rather than long-lasting vases. |
| [Osmanthus](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/osmanthus/) | 3–5 days | Autumn | Strong | — | Valued for scent rather than show — one sprig perfumes a room. The florets drop within days; mist to slow it. |
| [Holly](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/holly/) | 14–30 days | Winter | None | mildly toxic | Berries drop in warm rooms: keep cool and mist. The berries are toxic if eaten and the leaves are spiny — wear gloves. |
| [Lilac](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/lilac/) | 3–5 days | Spring | Strong | — | Strip nearly all the leaves — they take the water first — split the woody ends and condition in deep warm water overnight. |
| [Viburnum (snowball)](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/viburnum/) | 5–7 days | Spring | None | — | Strip the leaves and split the stems. Heads start lime green and turn white; a wilted head revives when submerged in cool water. |
| [Curly willow](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/curlywillow/) | 14–30 days | Year-round | None | — | Naturally contorted twigs give instant line and movement; strip the leaves for a bare winter look. Recut at an angle — stems kept in water may root. |
| [Juniper & arborvitae](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/juniper/) | 14–30 days | Year-round | Light | — | Scale-leaved evergreen branches last for weeks and give a dense dark base or a firm main line. Strip the needles below the water and recut the woody end. |
| [Ginkgo](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/ginkgo/) | 5–10 days | Autumn | None | — | Cut autumn branches when the fan-shaped leaves have just turned gold; once fully yellow they drop quickly. Keep away from heat. |
| [Pear blossom](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/pear/) | 4–7 days | Spring | Light | — | Choose branches with fat buds just showing white; split the woody base and give deep water. Pear is rarely given alone in China, where its name sounds like “parting”. |
| [Purple-leaf plum](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/purpleleafplum/) | 5–10 days | Spring, Summer | None | — | Dark wine-purple leaves add depth to light designs; spring branches carry small pale pink flowers. Split the woody end and remove leaves below the water. |
| [Photinia](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/photinia/) | 10–14 days | Year-round | None | — | Valued for the glossy bright red new shoots against dark green older leaves. Long-lasting; split the stem end and strip lower leaves. |
| [Amur honeysuckle](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/lonicera/) | 10–14 days | Autumn, Winter | None | — | Used in autumn and winter for its paired translucent red berries on arching twigs, often after the leaves have fallen. Handle gently — ripe berries drop. |
| [False spiraea](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/sorbaria/) | 4–7 days | Summer | Light | — | Pick plumes with the bead-like buds still mostly closed; open flowers shed quickly. Remove most of the pinnate leaves and split the stem end. |
| [Chinese redbud](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/cercis/) | 5–7 days | Spring | None | — | Bare spring branches thickly covered with small magenta pea-flowers right on the wood. Cut in tight bud; split the stem and give deep water. |
| [Winter jasmine](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/winterjasmine/) | 7–10 days | Winter, Spring | None | — | Arching green stems with small yellow flowers before the leaves — the first spring line. Buds open in a warm room; easy to bend into cascades. |
| [Winter daphne](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/daphne/) | 5–7 days | Winter, Spring | Strong | mildly toxic | Short branches with intensely fragrant pink-white flower clusters among leathery leaves. All parts are poisonous — keep from pets and children, and wash hands. |
| [Japanese kerria](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/kerria/) | 4–7 days | Spring | None | — | Slender green arching stems with golden flowers; a spring line in Chinese and Japanese work. Petals drop easily — cut in bud and handle gently. |
| [Crape myrtle](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/crapemyrtle/) | 4–7 days | Summer | None | — | Summer branches with crinkled flower panicles. Remove most leaves, split the stem and hydrate deeply; florets shed, so arrange close to delivery. |
| [Bougainvillea](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/bougainvillea/) | 4–7 days | Spring, Summer, Autumn | None | — | The colour comes from papery bracts around tiny white flowers. Thorny branches: sear or split the ends; bracts last longer than they look. |

## Texture and accents

| Flower | Vase life | In season | Handling |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| [Winterberry](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/redbean/) | 14–30 days | Autumn, Winter | Sold as bare branches covered in berries. Recut and stand in a little water, or use dry: the berries hold for weeks either way. Keep cool, because warmth makes them shrivel and drop. Handle gently, since knocked berries fall off, and remind clients that the berries are not edible. |
| [Heavenly bamboo (nandina)](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/nandina/) | 14–30 days | Autumn, Winter | Clusters of red berries over lacy leaves that redden in winter. Berries drop if the stems dry out — keep in deep water and mist. |
| [Persimmon branches](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/persimmon/) | 14–30 days | Autumn | Autumn fruiting branches, often with the leaves stripped so the orange fruit stands out. Fruit is heavy: wire or wedge the branch firmly. |
| [Lotus pod](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/lotuspod/) | 14–30 days | Summer, Autumn | Fresh green pods brown within days. Most are used dried, and then last for years. |
| [Cotton stems](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/cotton/) | 14–30 days | Autumn | A dried material: keep it out of water, because wet bolls go mouldy. |
| [Wheat ears](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/wheat/) | 14–30 days | Summer | A dried material: keep it dry and away from damp foam. |
| [Leucadendron](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/leucadendron/) | 14–21 days | Year-round | The colour comes from bracts, not petals. Woody, undemanding, lasts for weeks and dries in place. |
| [Banksia](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/banksia/) | 14–21 days | Year-round | Cut the woody stems with secateurs. It drinks heavily at first, then dries in the vase while keeping its form. |
| [Hypericum berries](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/hypericum/) | 10–14 days | Year-round | Used for its berries, not its flowers. The leaves blacken first — strip them — and the berries then last well. |
| [Pomegranate](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/pomegranate/) | 7–14 days | Summer, Autumn | Summer branches carry scarlet flowers (a Dragon Boat Festival flower); autumn branches carry fruit. Split the woody stem and support heavy fruit. |
| [Firethorn (pyracantha)](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/pyracantha/) | 14–21 days | Autumn, Winter | Thorny branches packed with red-orange berries for autumn and New Year pieces. Wear gloves, strip the thorns at the base, and split the stem. |
| [Buddha’s hand citron](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/buddhahand/) | 14–30 days | Autumn, Winter | A fragrant fingered fruit placed beside or below the arrangement in Chinese still-life pieces; lasts weeks and scents the room. |
| [Lingzhi mushroom](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/lingzhi/) | 180–365 days | Year-round | A dried, lacquer-glossy bracket fungus used in festive and temple offerings and still-life pieces. Keep dry; it never goes in water. |
| [Oriental bittersweet](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/celastrus/) | 14–30 days | Autumn | Twining autumn vines whose yellow capsules split to show orange-red seeds; adds colour and curving line. Dries in place and lasts for weeks. |

## Working with branches

- Split the base 2–3 cm in a cross, or crush it lightly, so the wood can take up water; then stand in deep water.

- To force blossom, cut in tight bud and bring into a warm room; mist the buds so they do not dry before opening.

- Blossom drops fast once open — deliver in bud for anything that needs to last.

- Lunar New Year branches — [Pussy willow](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/pussywillow/), [Peach blossom](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/peach/), [Bamboo](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/bamboo/) — typically cost 1.5–3× normal beforehand: [Chinese New Year](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/holidays/chinese-new-year/)

[Cut flower care and conditioning guide](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/cut-flower-care/) · [Floral design styles compared](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/floral-design-styles/) · [Flowers that dry well](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/flowers-for-drying/)

## FAQ

### What foliage do florists use most?

Year-round staples in our guide: eucalyptus, monstera leaf, asparagus fern, palm leaves, ivy, fatsia, dusty miller, salal, leatherleaf fern, aspidistra, pittosporum, myrtle, loquat leaves, sacred lily (rohdea), ti plant (cordyline).

### Which branches can be forced into bloom indoors?

plum blossom, cherry blossom, peach blossom, crabapple blossom, magnolia, wisteria: cut in bud, split the woody ends, and bring into warmth.

### Does an arrangement need foliage?

Usually. Foliage frames the flowers, hides the mechanics and defines the outline. Floreboard suggests adding some when a design of ten or more stems has none.

### Which foliage and branches are toxic to pets?

Flagged in our knowledge base: eucalyptus, monstera leaf, winterberry, wisteria, azalea, heavenly bamboo (nandina), asparagus fern, ivy, holly, hypericum berries, hosta leaves, sacred lily (rohdea), winter daphne, oriental bittersweet, ti plant (cordyline).

Last reviewed: 2026-10-31. Reference values from common trade practice. Real results vary with variety, origin and conditioning. [About our data](https://floreboard.com/en/about/)


---

<!-- https://floreboard.com/en/guides/flowers-for-drying/ -->

# Flowers that dry well

29 cut flowers, branches and textures that keep their shape and colour when dried, with three drying methods and the flowers that do not dry at all.

## Key facts

- Hang small bunches upside down in a dark, dry, airy place for two to three weeks.
- Papery and woody flowers dry best; fleshy flowers such as tulips and lilies do not.

For florists

## Turn this guide into a client design

We fill in the brief from this page. No stock yet? Load the sample flowers and see a recipe, quote and preview image in about a minute. New shops get 30 free credits.

Try it as a design — free

## Flowers and materials that dry well

| Flower | Role | In season | Colours |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| [Rose](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/rose/) | Focal flower | Year-round | red, pink, white, yellow, orange, purple, green |
| [Hydrangea](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/hydrangea/) | Focal flower | Summer | blue, pink, white, purple, green |
| [Baby's breath](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/gypsophila/) | Filler flower | Year-round | white, pink |
| [Astrantia](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/astrantia/) | Filler flower | Summer | white, pink, red |
| [Love-lies-bleeding](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/amaranthus/) | Line flower | Summer, Autumn | red, green |
| [Delphinium](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/delphinium/) | Line flower | Spring, Summer | blue, purple, white, pink |
| [Eucalyptus](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/eucalyptus/) | Foliage | Year-round | green, silver-grey |
| [Winterberry](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/redbean/) | Accent / texture | Autumn, Winter | red, orange |
| [Globe amaranth](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/gomphrena/) | Filler flower | Summer, Autumn | purple, pink, white, red |
| [Statice](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/statice/) | Filler flower | Year-round | purple, blue, pink, white, yellow |
| [Lavender](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/lavender/) | Filler flower | Summer | purple |
| [Celosia](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/celosia/) | Focal flower | Summer, Autumn | red, orange, yellow, pink |
| [Craspedia (billy buttons)](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/craspedia/) | Filler flower | Year-round | yellow |
| [Protea](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/protea/) | Focal flower | Winter, Spring | pink, white, red |
| [Salvia](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/salvia/) | Line flower | Summer | blue, purple |
| [Cornflower](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/cornflower/) | Filler flower | Spring, Summer | blue, pink, white |
| [Pussy willow](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/pussywillow/) | Branch | Winter, Spring | silver-grey |
| [Red-twig dogwood](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/dogwood/) | Branch | Winter | red |
| [Lotus pod](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/lotuspod/) | Accent / texture | Summer, Autumn | green |
| [Palm leaves](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/palm/) | Foliage | Year-round | green |
| [Cotton stems](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/cotton/) | Accent / texture | Autumn | white |
| [Wheat ears](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/wheat/) | Accent / texture | Summer | yellow |
| [Allium](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/allium/) | Focal flower | Spring, Summer | purple, white |
| [Astilbe](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/astilbe/) | Filler flower | Summer | pink, white, red |
| [Eryngium (sea holly)](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/eryngium/) | Filler flower | Summer | blue, silver-grey |
| [Kangaroo paw](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/kangaroopaw/) | Line flower | Spring, Summer | red, yellow, orange, green |
| [Solidago (goldenrod)](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/solidago/) | Filler flower | Summer, Autumn | yellow |
| [Leucadendron](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/leucadendron/) | Accent / texture | Year-round | red, green, yellow |
| [Banksia](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/banksia/) | Accent / texture | Year-round | orange, yellow, red |

## Three ways to dry

- **Hang upside down** — the default: small bunches, dark, dry and airy, two to three weeks.

- **Dry in the vase** — for hydrangea, gypsophila, craspedia, protea and banksia: leave them in a few centimetres of water and let it evaporate.

- **Keep dry from the start** — pussy willow, cotton, wheat and lotus pods should never go into water.

Dried material is brittle and flammable: keep it away from candles and out of damp rooms, and expect colours to fade over months in direct light.

[Longest-lasting cut flowers](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/long-lasting-flowers/) · [Foliage and branches for arrangements](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/foliage-and-branches/) · [Cut flower care and conditioning guide](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/cut-flower-care/)

## FAQ

### Which flowers dry best?

Flowers with papery or woody structure hold their shape and colour: rose, hydrangea, baby's breath, astrantia, love-lies-bleeding, delphinium, eucalyptus, winterberry, globe amaranth, statice.

### How do you air-dry flowers?

Strip the leaves, tie small bunches, and hang them upside down somewhere dark, dry and airy for two to three weeks. Darkness keeps the colour; airflow prevents mould.

### Can roses be dried?

Yes. Hang them upside down just before they are fully open; the colour deepens as they dry.

### Which flowers do not dry well?

Fleshy, water-filled flowers such as tulips, lilies, calla lilies and gerberas shrivel or rot rather than dry.

Last reviewed: 2026-10-31. [About our data](https://floreboard.com/en/about/)


---

<!-- https://floreboard.com/en/guides/commonly-confused-flowers/ -->

# Commonly confused flowers

Peony or ranunculus? Calla or lily? Stock or violet? The flowers florists and clients most often mix up, how to tell them apart, and why the difference matters for pets, taboos and vase life.

## Key facts

- A calla lily is not a true lily; only true lilies (Lilium) are highly toxic to cats.
- Daisies, chamomile and cosmos are not chrysanthemums and carry no funeral association.
- Most cut "peonies" are herbaceous peonies; tree peonies are shorter-lived.

For florists

## Turn this guide into a client design

We fill in the brief from this page. No stock yet? Load the sample flowers and see a recipe, quote and preview image in about a minute. New shops get 30 free credits.

Try it as a design — free

## Tree peony and herbaceous peony

Tree peonies (Paeonia × suffruticosa) are woody shrubs; herbaceous peonies (P. lactiflora) die back each winter and are what most florists sell as "peonies". In our data they last 3–5 and 5–7 days respectively.

[Tree peony](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/peony/) · [Peony (herbaceous)](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/herbaceous-peony/)

## Ranunculus, lisianthus and peony

Three unrelated flowers with layered petals. In Chinese flower markets "yang mudan" means ranunculus, not peony, and is often mixed up with lisianthus ("yang jiegeng").

[Ranunculus](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/ranunculus/) · [Lisianthus](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/lisianthus/)

## Calla lily and true lily

A calla (Zantedeschia) is an arum, not a lily. The difference matters for cats: true lilies (Lilium) are highly toxic to them, while calla is flagged as mildly toxic to cats and dogs.

[Calla lily](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/calla/) · [Lily](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/lily/)

## Alstroemeria ("Peruvian lily") and lily

Alstroemeria is not a Lilium either, despite the common name, and it sheds no staining pollen. Its leaves yellow long before the flowers fade.

[Alstroemeria](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/alstroemeria/) · [Lily](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/lily/)

## Stock and violet

In Chinese flower markets "ziluolan" is stock (Matthiola incana), a tall scented spike. The small violet of flower language (Viola) and the houseplant African violet are different plants.

[Stock (Matthiola)](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/stock/)

## Daisy, chamomile and chrysanthemum

All are in the daisy family, but only chrysanthemum carries the funeral association in East Asia and parts of Europe. Daisies, chamomile, cosmos, calendula, marigold, cornflower and China aster have the character for "chrysanthemum" in their Chinese names without being one.

[Daisy (marguerite)](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/daisy/) · [Chamomile](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/chamomile/) · [Chrysanthemum](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/chrysanthemum/)

## Statice and forget-me-not

What Chinese florists sell as "wu wang wo" (forget-me-not) is usually statice (Limonium), the papery flower that dries well — not the tiny blue Myosotis.

[Statice](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/statice/)

## Roses and Chinese roses

Botanically, the cut "roses" sold worldwide are hybrid Chinese roses (yueji, Rosa × hybrida). In Chinese, "meigui" is the everyday and commercial name for them.

[Rose](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/rose/)

## Narcissus, daffodil and jonquil

All are Narcissus. The Chinese New Year "shui xian" is the cluster-flowered Narcissus tazetta; daffodils are the large trumpet kinds. The sap rule applies to all of them: condition alone for 12–24 hours.

[Narcissus (daffodil)](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/narcissus/)

## Hydrangea and snowball viburnum

Similar round heads, different plants. Viburnum is a spring branch whose heads open lime green and turn white (5–7 days); hydrangea is a summer flower in blue, pink, white and purple (5–7 days).

[Hydrangea](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/hydrangea/) · [Viburnum (snowball)](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/viburnum/)

## Plum, peach and cherry blossom

Plum flowers in winter, sits tight on the branch and has rounded petals and a clear scent. Peach follows in early spring with pointed petals. Cherry flowers hang in clusters on long stalks and have a notch at the tip of each petal.

[Plum blossom](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/plum/) · [Peach blossom](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/peach/) · [Cherry blossom](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/cherry/)

## Protea, pincushion, leucadendron and banksia

All four belong to the protea family and share the same handling: woody stems, leaves that blacken before the flower head, and excellent drying. Banksia is Australian; the other three are South African.

[Protea](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/protea/) · [Pincushion protea](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/leucospermum/) · [Leucadendron](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/leucadendron/) · [Banksia](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/banksia/)

## Delphinium and larkspur

Close relatives. Delphinium is the perennial with larger florets; larkspur (Consolida) is the finer annual. Both are very sensitive to ethylene and both dry well.

[Delphinium](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/delphinium/)

## Lisianthus and rose

Double lisianthus is often used as a thornless, unscented stand-in for roses. In our data it lasts 7–14 days against 5–7 for roses.

[Lisianthus](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/lisianthus/) · [Rose](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/rose/)

## True bamboo and "lucky bamboo"

"Lucky bamboo" is Dracaena sanderiana, unrelated to bamboo. It lives for months in water, while cut bamboo leaves curl within days.

[Bamboo](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/bamboo/)

[Floristry glossary](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/floristry-glossary/) · [Flower guide](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/) · [Pet-safe flowers for cats and dogs](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/pet-safe-flowers/)

## FAQ

### Is a calla lily a real lily?

No. Calla lilies are arums (Zantedeschia). True lilies are Lilium.

### What is the difference between a peony and a ranunculus?

Peonies are much larger, flower only in spring and have divided leaves on thick stems. Ranunculus are smaller, with paper-thin petals on hollow, soft stems.

### Are daisies chrysanthemums?

They are in the same family but are not chrysanthemums, and they do not carry the funeral association chrysanthemums have in East Asia.

### Is a florist's rose a rose or a Chinese rose?

Botanically a hybrid Chinese rose (Rosa × hybrida). "Rose" is the commercial name used everywhere.

Last reviewed: 2026-10-31. [About our data](https://floreboard.com/en/about/)


---

<!-- https://floreboard.com/en/guides/flowers-by-occasion/ -->

# Flowers by occasion

A one-page reference for choosing flowers by occasion — romance, Mother's Day, birthdays, weddings, openings, graduation, hospital visits, sympathy and Lunar New Year — with what to avoid for each.

| Occasion | Good choices | Avoid | Guide |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| **Romance and Valentine's Day** | [Rose](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/rose/), [Tulip](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/tulip/), [Ranunculus](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/ranunculus/), [Lisianthus](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/lisianthus/) | Four stems for East Asian recipients; lilies for homes with cats | [Valentine's Day](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/holidays/valentines-day/) · [How many flowers to give: meanings and taboos by culture](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/flower-numbers/) |
| **Mother's Day** | [Carnation](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/carnation/), [Rose](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/rose/), [Lily](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/lily/), [Hydrangea](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/hydrangea/) | White carnations, which traditionally honour a mother who has died | [Mother's Day](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/holidays/mothers-day/) · [Flower colour meanings across cultures](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/flower-color-meanings/) |
| **Birthday** | [Gerbera daisy](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/gerbera/), [Sunflower](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/sunflower/), [Rose](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/rose/), [Lisianthus](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/lisianthus/) | White and yellow chrysanthemums for East Asian recipients | [Birthday flowers](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/birthday-flowers/) · [Birth month flowers](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/birth-month-flowers/) |
| **Wedding and anniversary** | [Rose](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/rose/), [Peony (herbaceous)](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/herbaceous-peony/), [Lisianthus](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/lisianthus/), [Calla lily](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/calla/) | Unremoved lily anthers; very short-lived flowers made too early | [Wedding flowers by season](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/wedding-flowers/) · [Wedding anniversary flowers by year](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/anniversary-flowers/) |
| **Business opening** | [Gladiolus](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/gladiolus/), [Anthurium](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/anthurium/), [Sunflower](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/sunflower/), [Bird of paradise](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/strelitzia/) | All-white designs; white and yellow chrysanthemums | [Flowers for a business opening](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/business-opening-flowers/) |
| **Graduation** | [Sunflower](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/sunflower/), [Gerbera daisy](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/gerbera/), [Rose](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/rose/), [Baby's breath](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/gypsophila/) | Fragile, short-lived flowers that will not survive a long ceremony | [Longest-lasting cut flowers](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/long-lasting-flowers/) |
| **Get well and hospital visits** | [Lisianthus](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/lisianthus/), [Gerbera daisy](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/gerbera/), [Carnation](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/carnation/), [Statice](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/statice/) | Strong scent, heavy pollen, potted plants in Chinese custom | [Flowers for a hospital visit: what to send and avoid](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/hospital-flowers/) · [Unscented and low-pollen flowers](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/unscented-flowers/) |
| **Sympathy and funerals** | [Chrysanthemum](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/chrysanthemum/), [Lily](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/lily/), [Carnation](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/carnation/), [Rose](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/rose/) | Red and other celebratory colours in East Asia | [Funeral and sympathy flowers: customs by culture](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/funeral-flowers/) |
| **Lunar New Year** | [Orchids (cut)](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/orchid/), [Pussy willow](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/pussywillow/), [Peach blossom](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/peach/), [Narcissus (daffodil)](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/narcissus/), [Bamboo](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/bamboo/) | Quantities of four; white or yellow chrysanthemums | [Chinese New Year](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/holidays/chinese-new-year/) |

Customs vary by family and region; when unsure, ask the client.

## FAQ

### What flowers are appropriate for every occasion?

Pink or mixed-colour roses, lisianthus and gerberas come closest: lightly scented or unscented, long enough lasting, and free of strong cultural baggage.

### What should a florist ask before taking an order?

The occasion, who it is for and their cultural background, whether they have pets, any allergy or scent sensitivity, the budget, and the delivery date.

For florists

## Turn this guide into a client design

We fill in the brief from this page. No stock yet? Load the sample flowers and see a recipe, quote and preview image in about a minute. New shops get 30 free credits.

Try it as a design — free

Last reviewed: 2026-10-31. [About our data](https://floreboard.com/en/about/)


---

<!-- https://floreboard.com/en/guides/wedding-flowers/ -->

# Wedding flowers by season

Choosing wedding and bridal flowers: long-lasting, pollen-free choices by season, stems that need extra care, and taboos for Chinese, Japanese and Korean weddings.

## Good choices by season (5+ days vase life, no pollen stains, not strongly scented)

| Season | Flowers |
| --- | --- |
| Spring | [Chamomile](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/chamomile/), [Peony (herbaceous)](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/herbaceous-peony/), [Amaryllis (Hippeastrum)](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/amaryllis/), [Bupleurum](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/bupleurum/), [Canterbury bells](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/campanula/), [Delphinium](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/delphinium/), [Queen Anne's lace (Ammi)](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/queenannes/), [Protea](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/protea/), [Waxflower](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/waxflower/), [Lupin](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/lupin/), [Snapdragon](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/snapdragon/), [Daisy (marguerite)](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/daisy/), [Calendula](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/calendula/), [Cornflower](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/cornflower/), [Ranunculus](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/ranunculus/), [Hellebore](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/hellebore/), [Allium](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/allium/), [Pincushion protea](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/leucospermum/), [Kangaroo paw](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/kangaroopaw/) |
| Summer | [Sunflower](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/sunflower/), [Hydrangea](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/hydrangea/), [Chamomile](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/chamomile/), [Astrantia](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/astrantia/), [Love-lies-bleeding](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/amaranthus/), [Bells of Ireland](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/moluccella/), [Bupleurum](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/bupleurum/), [Siam tulip (Curcuma)](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/curcuma/), [Canterbury bells](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/campanula/), [Crocosmia](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/crocosmia/), [Delphinium](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/delphinium/), [Globe amaranth](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/gomphrena/), [Zinnia](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/zinnia/), [Celosia](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/celosia/), [Queen Anne's lace (Ammi)](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/queenannes/), [Lupin](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/lupin/), [Salvia](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/salvia/), [Daisy (marguerite)](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/daisy/), [Cosmos](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/cosmos/), [Calendula](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/calendula/), [Cornflower](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/cornflower/), [China aster](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/aster/), [Trachelium](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/trachelium/), [Gladiolus](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/gladiolus/), [Scabiosa](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/scabiosa/), [Agapanthus](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/agapanthus/), [Allium](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/allium/), [Astilbe](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/astilbe/), [Eryngium (sea holly)](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/eryngium/), [Kangaroo paw](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/kangaroopaw/), [Solidago (goldenrod)](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/solidago/), [Veronica](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/veronica/), [Purple loosestrife](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/lythrum/), [Obedient plant](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/physostegia/), [Hollyhock](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/hollyhock/), [Daylily](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/hemerocallis/), [Arrowhead (sagittaria)](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/sagittaria/) |
| Autumn | [Love-lies-bleeding](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/amaranthus/), [Globe amaranth](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/gomphrena/), [Zinnia](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/zinnia/), [Celosia](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/celosia/), [Cosmos](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/cosmos/), [China aster](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/aster/), [Gladiolus](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/gladiolus/), [Solidago (goldenrod)](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/solidago/), [Obedient plant](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/physostegia/), [Red spider lily](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/lycoris/) |
| Winter | [Amaryllis (Hippeastrum)](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/amaryllis/), [Protea](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/protea/), [Waxflower](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/waxflower/), [Ranunculus](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/ranunculus/), [Hellebore](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/hellebore/), [Pincushion protea](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/leucospermum/) |
| Year-round | [Rose](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/rose/), [Carnation](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/carnation/), [Gerbera daisy](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/gerbera/), [Lisianthus](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/lisianthus/), [Baby's breath](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/gypsophila/), [Bird of paradise](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/strelitzia/), [Orchids (cut)](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/orchid/), [Calla lily](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/calla/), [Statice](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/statice/), [Anthurium](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/anthurium/), [Dendrobium orchid](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/dendrobium/), [Craspedia (billy buttons)](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/craspedia/), [Alstroemeria](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/alstroemeria/), [Heliconia](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/heliconia/), [Star of Bethlehem (Ornithogalum)](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/ornithogalum/), [Bouvardia](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/bouvardia/) |

For florists

## Turn this guide into a client design

We fill in the brief from this page. No stock yet? Load the sample flowers and see a recipe, quote and preview image in about a minute. New shops get 30 free credits.

Try it as a design — free

## Handle with care

- Pollen stains gowns — remove the anthers: [Lily](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/lily/)

- Short-lived — make up the day before or on the day: [Tulip](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/tulip/), [Tree peony](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/peony/), [Narcissus (daffodil)](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/narcissus/), [Camellia](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/camellia/), [Iris](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/iris/), [Anemone](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/anemone/), [Lily of the valley](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/lilyvalley/), [Gardenia](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/gardenia/), [Jasmine](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/jasmine/), [Dahlia](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/dahlia/), [Lotus](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/lotus/), [Water lily](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/waterlily/), [Clematis](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/clematis/), [Poppy](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/poppy/), [Sweet pea](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/sweetpea/), [Grape hyacinth (Muscari)](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/muscari/), [Chinese iris](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/irislactea/), [Hardy begonia](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/begonia/)

- Strongly scented — use sparingly indoors and on dining tables: [Lily](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/lily/), [Narcissus (daffodil)](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/narcissus/), [Freesia](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/freesia/), [Hyacinth](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/hyacinth/), [Lily of the valley](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/lilyvalley/), [Stock (Matthiola)](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/stock/), [Gardenia](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/gardenia/), [Jasmine](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/jasmine/), [Lavender](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/lavender/), [Marigold](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/marigold/), [Sweet pea](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/sweetpea/), [Tuberose](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/tuberose/)

See also: [How many flowers to give: meanings and taboos by culture](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/flower-numbers/) · [Floral design styles compared](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/floral-design-styles/)

## FAQ

### Are lilies a good wedding flower?

They can be, but lily pollen stains gowns and suits, so remove the anthers; and lilies are highly toxic to cats, so avoid them if the couple has cats.

### What shape is a classic bridal bouquet?

The classic is a round Biedermeier bouquet: concentric rings of tightly packed blooms, usually no more than three focal flowers, finished with a foliage collar.

### Any flower taboos for Chinese, Japanese or Korean weddings?

Avoid white or yellow chrysanthemums (linked to funerals) and quantities of 4; for Japanese couples also avoid 9.

Last reviewed: 2026-10-31. Reference values from common trade practice. Real results vary with variety, origin and conditioning.


---

<!-- https://floreboard.com/en/guides/birthday-flowers/ -->

# Birthday flowers

Choosing birthday flowers: long-lasting focal flowers for each season, birth month flowers, and the pet, scent and cultural checks to run before designing.

## Key facts

- Bright, long-lasting focal flowers plus the birth month flower make a personal birthday bouquet.
- For East Asian recipients avoid white and yellow chrysanthemums, all-white bouquets and four stems.
- No lilies for homes with cats.

For florists

## Turn this guide into a client design

We fill in the brief from this page. No stock yet? Load the sample flowers and see a recipe, quote and preview image in about a minute. New shops get 30 free credits.

Try it as a design — free

## Good birthday focal flowers by season

Focal flowers that last five days or more, excluding chrysanthemums:

| Season | Flowers |
| --- | --- |
| Spring | [Peony (herbaceous)](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/herbaceous-peony/), [Amaryllis (Hippeastrum)](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/amaryllis/), [Hyacinth](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/hyacinth/), [Protea](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/protea/), [Ranunculus](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/ranunculus/), [Allium](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/allium/), [Pincushion protea](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/leucospermum/) |
| Summer | [Sunflower](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/sunflower/), [Hydrangea](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/hydrangea/), [Siam tulip (Curcuma)](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/curcuma/), [Zinnia](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/zinnia/), [Celosia](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/celosia/), [Marigold](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/marigold/), [Agapanthus](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/agapanthus/), [Allium](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/allium/), [Daylily](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/hemerocallis/) |
| Autumn | [Zinnia](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/zinnia/), [Celosia](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/celosia/), [Marigold](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/marigold/), [Red spider lily](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/lycoris/) |
| Winter | [Amaryllis (Hippeastrum)](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/amaryllis/), [Hyacinth](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/hyacinth/), [Protea](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/protea/), [Ranunculus](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/ranunculus/), [Pincushion protea](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/leucospermum/) |
| Year-round | [Rose](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/rose/), [Lily](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/lily/), [Carnation](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/carnation/), [Gerbera daisy](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/gerbera/), [Lisianthus](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/lisianthus/), [Bird of paradise](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/strelitzia/), [Orchids (cut)](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/orchid/), [Calla lily](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/calla/), [Anthurium](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/anthurium/), [Heliconia](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/heliconia/) |

## Before you design

- Pets at home? Lilies, lily of the valley and azalea are highly toxic to cats — [Pet-safe flowers for cats and dogs](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/pet-safe-flowers/)

- Sensitive to scent or pollen? See [Unscented and low-pollen flowers](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/unscented-flowers/)

- Cultural background: chrysanthemum and number taboos — [How many flowers to give: meanings and taboos by culture](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/flower-numbers/)

- The birth month flower — [Birth month flowers](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/birth-month-flowers/)

[Flowers by occasion](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/flowers-by-occasion/) · [Flower colour meanings across cultures](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/flower-color-meanings/) · [Longest-lasting cut flowers](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/long-lasting-flowers/)

## FAQ

### What flowers are best for a birthday?

Bright, cheerful focal flowers that last: year-round choices include rose, lily, carnation, gerbera daisy, lisianthus, bird of paradise. Adding the person's birth month flower makes it personal.

### What flowers should not be given for a birthday?

For recipients from China, Japan or Korea avoid white and yellow chrysanthemums and all-white bouquets, and do not give four stems (nine as well in Japan). Avoid lilies if they have cats.

### How many flowers should a birthday bouquet have?

There is no rule in the West. In Chinese gifting, numbers carry meaning — avoid 4, and popular choices are 9, 11 or 99.

### What flowers suit an older relative's birthday in China?

Warm reds and pinks with long-lasting flowers; pine symbolises longevity. Avoid white or yellow chrysanthemums and all-white designs.

Last reviewed: 2026-10-31. Reference values from common trade practice. Real results vary with variety, origin and conditioning. [About our data](https://floreboard.com/en/about/)


---

<!-- https://floreboard.com/en/guides/business-opening-flowers/ -->

# Flowers for a business opening

What to send for a shop or business opening: auspicious flowers and colours in Chinese practice, long-lasting stems for opening stands, and the taboos to avoid.

## Key facts

- In China: red and gold, with gladiolus, anthurium, sunflower and wheat ears for their lucky meanings.
- Build opening stands from flowers that last a week or more.
- No white or yellow chrysanthemums, no all-white designs, no quantity of four.

For florists

## Turn this guide into a client design

We fill in the brief from this page. No stock yet? Load the sample flowers and see a recipe, quote and preview image in about a minute. New shops get 30 free credits.

Try it as a design — free

## Auspicious choices

| Flower | Why it is chosen | Vase life | In season |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| [Gladiolus](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/gladiolus/) | "Rising step by step" in Chinese | 7–10 days | Summer, Autumn |
| [Anthurium](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/anthurium/) | "Grand plans realised" in Chinese | 14–21 days | Year-round |
| [Sunflower](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/sunflower/) | Turning to the sun — thriving business | 6–10 days | Summer |
| [Bird of paradise](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/strelitzia/) | Bold, upright and long-lasting | 10–14 days | Year-round |
| [Wheat ears](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/wheat/) | A homophone wish for "big sales" in Chinese | 14–30 days | Summer |
| [Snapdragon](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/snapdragon/) | "Gold to spare" in southern China | 7–10 days | Spring |
| [Orchids (cut)](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/orchid/) | Refined; potted phalaenopsis is the premium opening gift | 10–21 days | Year-round |

## Long-lasting flowers available all year

Seven days or more in a vase, focal or line flowers, excluding chrysanthemums:

[Lily](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/lily/) · [Carnation](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/carnation/) · [Lisianthus](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/lisianthus/) · [Bird of paradise](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/strelitzia/) · [Orchids (cut)](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/orchid/) · [Calla lily](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/calla/) · [Anthurium](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/anthurium/) · [Dendrobium orchid](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/dendrobium/) · [Heliconia](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/heliconia/) · [Star of Bethlehem (Ornithogalum)](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/ornithogalum/)

## Avoid

- White and yellow chrysanthemums and all-white designs — funeral associations in China, Japan and Korea.

- Quantities of four for Chinese, Japanese and Korean clients.

- Strongly scented flowers for restaurants, cafés and small shops.

- Short-lived flowers in anything that will stand for days.

[Flowers by occasion](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/flowers-by-occasion/) · [Longest-lasting cut flowers](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/long-lasting-flowers/) · [Flower colour meanings across cultures](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/flower-color-meanings/) · [How many flowers to give: meanings and taboos by culture](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/flower-numbers/)

## FAQ

### What flowers are sent for a business opening?

In Chinese practice, tall basket arrangements in red, pink and gold built from long-lasting, auspicious flowers: gladiolus, anthurium, sunflower, bird of paradise, wheat ears. Elsewhere, a bright long-lasting arrangement or a potted orchid is the usual gift.

### What colours are lucky for an opening in China?

Red first, supported by pink, gold, yellow and orange. Avoid all-white designs.

### What should be avoided in opening flowers?

White and yellow chrysanthemums, all-white arrangements, and quantities of four for Chinese, Japanese and Korean clients. For restaurants and cafés, avoid strongly scented flowers.

### How long should opening flowers last?

Stands often sit at the entrance for several days, sometimes outdoors, so build the recipe from flowers that last a week or more.

Last reviewed: 2026-10-31. Reference values from common trade practice. Real results vary with variety, origin and conditioning. [About our data](https://floreboard.com/en/about/)


---

<!-- https://floreboard.com/en/guides/hospital-flowers/ -->

# Flowers for a hospital visit: what to send and avoid

What to send to a patient and what to avoid: strong scents, heavy pollen, potted plants in Chinese custom, chrysanthemum and number taboos, and good choices.

## Avoid

- Strongly scented flowers, which can bother patients and roommates: [Lily](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/lily/), [Narcissus (daffodil)](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/narcissus/), [Wintersweet](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/wintersweet/), [Freesia](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/freesia/), [Hyacinth](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/hyacinth/), [Lily of the valley](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/lilyvalley/), [Stock (Matthiola)](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/stock/), [Gardenia](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/gardenia/), [Jasmine](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/jasmine/), [Lavender](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/lavender/), [Marigold](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/marigold/), [Wisteria](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/wisteria/), [Osmanthus](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/osmanthus/), [Sweet pea](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/sweetpea/), [Tuberose](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/tuberose/), [Lilac](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/lilac/), [Mugwort](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/artemisia/), [Buddha’s hand citron](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/buddhahand/), [Winter daphne](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/daphne/)

- Heavy-pollen flowers that trigger allergies: [Lily](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/lily/)

- Potted plants: in Chinese custom they suggest the illness will "take root".

- White or yellow chrysanthemums: associated with funerals in China, Japan and Korea.

- Quantities of 4 (China, Japan, Korea) and 9 (Japan) — see [How many flowers to give: meanings and taboos by culture](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/flower-numbers/).

For florists

## Turn this guide into a client design

We fill in the brief from this page. No stock yet? Load the sample flowers and see a recipe, quote and preview image in about a minute. New shops get 30 free credits.

Try it as a design — free

## Good choices

Available year-round, lightly scented, lasting 7 days or more: [Carnation](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/carnation/), [Lisianthus](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/lisianthus/), [Baby's breath](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/gypsophila/), [Bird of paradise](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/strelitzia/), [Orchids (cut)](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/orchid/), [Calla lily](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/calla/), [Statice](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/statice/), [Anthurium](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/anthurium/), [Dendrobium orchid](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/dendrobium/), [Craspedia (billy buttons)](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/craspedia/), [Alstroemeria](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/alstroemeria/), [Heliconia](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/heliconia/), [Star of Bethlehem (Ornithogalum)](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/ornithogalum/), [Bouvardia](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/bouvardia/)

## FAQ

### What flowers are good for a hospital visit?

Lightly scented, long-lasting flowers work best, such as carnation, lisianthus, baby's breath, bird of paradise, orchids (cut), calla lily — in a small arrangement that does not need fresh water often.

### Why not bring a potted plant to a patient?

In Chinese custom a potted plant suggests the illness will "take root", so it is considered unlucky for patients.

### Do all hospitals allow fresh flowers?

No. Many intensive care units and some wards do not accept fresh flowers for infection control, so check with the ward first.

Last reviewed: 2026-10-31.


---

<!-- https://floreboard.com/en/guides/funeral-flowers/ -->

# Funeral and sympathy flowers: customs by culture

Which flowers and colours suit funerals and condolences in China, Japan, Korea, Europe and North America — and what to avoid.

| Region | Common choices | Avoid |
| --- | --- | --- |
| Chinese mainland, Hong Kong, Taiwan | White and yellow chrysanthemums, white lilies, white roses; muted white and yellow palettes | Red and other bright, celebratory colours |
| Japan | White chrysanthemums, white lilies and other white flowers | Red flowers; thorny (roses) or strongly scented flowers are often avoided |
| Korea | White chrysanthemums (the standard funeral flower) | Bright colours |
| Western Europe and North America | Lilies (especially white), white roses, carnations, chrysanthemums; wreaths and standing sprays | — |
| France, Italy, Belgium | Chrysanthemums are used for graves and All Saints' Day (Nov 1) | Giving chrysanthemums to the living |
| Russia and Eastern Europe | An even number of stems for funerals and remembrance | Even numbers for the living (give odd numbers) |

Customs vary by family, religion and region — ask the client when unsure.

## FAQ

### Can chrysanthemums be given as a gift?

It depends on the region. In China, Japan, Korea, France, Italy and Belgium they are linked to funerals and graves; in the US and Australia they are everyday gift flowers (Australians often give them on Mother's Day).

### What colour flowers suit a Chinese funeral?

White and yellow; avoid red and other celebratory colours.

### Are strongly scented flowers fine for condolences?

For condolences and hospital visits it is better to avoid strong scents; Floreboard flags them automatically for these occasions.

For florists

## Turn this guide into a client design

We fill in the brief from this page. No stock yet? Load the sample flowers and see a recipe, quote and preview image in about a minute. New shops get 30 free credits.

Try it as a design — free

Last reviewed: 2026-10-31.


---

<!-- https://floreboard.com/en/guides/flower-numbers/ -->

# How many flowers to give: meanings and taboos by culture

What 1, 3, 9, 11, 12 or 99 flowers mean, and number taboos across cultures: 4 in East Asia, 9 in Japan, even numbers in Russia and Eastern Europe.

| Number | Meaning or custom | Where |
| --- | --- | --- |
| 1 stem | "You are the one" | Widely |
| 3 stems | "I love you" | China (popular meaning) |
| 4 stems | Avoid — sounds like "death" | China, Japan, Korea |
| 9 stems | "Everlasting" (久 sounds like 九) | China |
| 9 stems | Avoid — "9" (ku) sounds like "suffering" | Japan |
| 11 stems | "My one and only" (一心一意) | China (popular meaning) |
| 12 stems | A dozen — the classic romantic bouquet | Europe, North America |
| 13 stems | Unlucky for some clients | Parts of the West |
| 99 stems | "Forever" (天长地久) | China (popular meaning) |
| Even / odd | Even numbers are for funerals; give odd numbers to the living | Russia, Eastern Europe |

"Popular meanings" come from modern gifting culture rather than fixed tradition; ask the client when unsure. Floreboard flags number taboos automatically based on the language you use (4 in Chinese, Japanese and Korean; 9 in Japanese).

## FAQ

### How many roses should I give?

Popular choices are 1, 3, 11, 12 (a dozen) or 99. For clients from China, Japan or Korea avoid 4, and for Japanese clients also avoid 9.

### Why avoid giving 4 flowers?

In Chinese, Japanese and Korean, "4" sounds like the word for "death", so gifts of 4 are usually avoided.

### Is 9 a good or bad number of flowers?

It depends: in Chinese 9 sounds like "long-lasting" and is auspicious; in Japanese 9 (ku) sounds like "suffering" and is usually avoided.

For florists

## Turn this guide into a client design

We fill in the brief from this page. No stock yet? Load the sample flowers and see a recipe, quote and preview image in about a minute. New shops get 30 free credits.

Try it as a design — free

Last reviewed: 2026-10-31.


---

<!-- https://floreboard.com/en/guides/flower-color-meanings/ -->

# Flower colour meanings across cultures

What flower colours mean in Western, Chinese, Japanese, Korean and other traditions — and the colours to avoid for weddings, funerals, hospital visits and gifts abroad.

## Key facts

- White means weddings in the West and mourning in China, Japan and Korea.
- Red is romantic in the West and lucky in China — but wrong for East Asian funerals.
- Pink is the safest colour across cultures.

For florists

## Turn this guide into a client design

We fill in the brief from this page. No stock yet? Load the sample flowers and see a recipe, quote and preview image in about a minute. New shops get 30 free credits.

Try it as a design — free

| Colour | What it says, and where to be careful |
| --- | --- |
| [Red](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/flowers-by-color/red/) | Love and passion in the West; luck, joy and celebration in China, where red suits weddings, openings and New Year. Avoid red for funerals and condolences in East Asia. |
| [Pink](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/flowers-by-color/pink/) | Gratitude, admiration and gentle affection — the safest colour across cultures and the classic Mother's Day choice. |
| [White](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/flowers-by-color/white/) | Purity and new beginnings at Western weddings, and remembrance in sympathy work. In China, Japan and Korea white is the colour of mourning, so avoid all-white gifts for celebrations there. |
| [Yellow](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/flowers-by-color/yellow/) | Friendship and cheer in the US and UK. In Russia and parts of Eastern Europe yellow flowers can signal parting or jealousy, and in East Asia yellow and white chrysanthemums are for mourning. |
| [Orange](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/flowers-by-color/orange/) | Energy, warmth and enthusiasm. Orange marigolds mark Día de los Muertos in Mexico and festival garlands in India. |
| [Purple](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/flowers-by-color/purple/) | Admiration, dignity and a touch of luxury. Purple and lavender are also common in Western sympathy flowers. |
| [Blue](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/flowers-by-color/blue/) | Calm, trust and serenity. True blue is rare in flowers, which is why this list is short — and why blue roses are always dyed. |
| [Green](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/flowers-by-color/green/) | Renewal, health and good fortune. Green flowers and foliage calm a busy palette and frame the focal blooms. |

## Rose colours

| Colour | Meaning |
| --- | --- |
| Red | Love and passion |
| Pink | Gratitude and admiration |
| White | Purity and new beginnings; also remembrance |
| Yellow | Friendship today; jealousy in Victorian flower language |
| Orange | Enthusiasm and desire |
| Purple (lavender) | Enchantment — love at first sight |

[Rose](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/rose/) · [How many flowers to give: meanings and taboos by culture](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/flower-numbers/)

## Carnation colours

| Colour | Meaning |
| --- | --- |
| Red | Admiration and deep love |
| Pink | A mother's love — the Mother's Day classic |
| White | Pure love and good luck; in American and Japanese tradition, white carnations honour a mother who has died |
| Yellow | Disappointment or rejection in Victorian flower language |

[Carnation](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/carnation/) · [Mother's Day](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/holidays/mothers-day/)

## What Floreboard checks

- White or yellow chrysanthemums in a design for a joyful occasion (wedding, birthday, opening, Valentine's Day, Mother's Day, graduation).

- Palettes that span five or more colour families, which tend to look cluttered.

[Flowers by colour](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/flowers-by-color/) · [Funeral and sympathy flowers: customs by culture](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/funeral-flowers/) · [Flower meanings: the language of flowers](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/flower-meanings/)

## FAQ

### What colour flowers are for funerals?

White in most of the world, and white and yellow in China, Japan and Korea. Avoid red and other celebratory colours at East Asian funerals.

### Is it rude to give yellow flowers?

Not in the US or UK, where yellow means friendship. In Russia and parts of Eastern Europe yellow can suggest parting or jealousy, and yellow chrysanthemums are mourning flowers in East Asia.

### What colour roses mean friendship?

Yellow. Pink roses say thank you; red roses are romantic.

### What colour flowers are lucky in China?

Red, with pink, gold and orange as supporting colours. Avoid all-white arrangements and white or yellow chrysanthemums for celebrations.

### Why should red and white flowers not be mixed for a hospital in the UK?

An old British hospital superstition reads red and white together as "blood and bandages". Many people no longer know it, but older patients may.

Last reviewed: 2026-10-31. Colour meanings are conventions that vary by family, generation and region — ask when unsure. [About our data](https://floreboard.com/en/about/)


---

<!-- https://floreboard.com/en/guides/flower-meanings/ -->

# Flower meanings: the language of flowers

The popular meanings of 83 cut flowers and branches — Western flower language alongside Chinese and Japanese symbolism — with season and colours for each.

## Key facts

- Flower meanings are conventions, not rules, and vary by culture.
- The same flower can be celebratory in one country and funereal in another — chrysanthemum is the classic case.

For florists

## Turn this guide into a client design

We fill in the brief from this page. No stock yet? Load the sample flowers and see a recipe, quote and preview image in about a minute. New shops get 30 free credits.

Try it as a design — free

| Flower | Meaning | In season | Colours |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| [Agapanthus](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/agapanthus/) | Love letters — the "flower of love" | Summer | blue, white |
| [Alstroemeria](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/alstroemeria/) | Friendship and devotion | Year-round | pink, white, yellow, orange, red, purple |
| [Anemone](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/anemone/) | Anticipation | Winter, Spring | red, white, purple, pink, blue |
| [Anthurium](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/anthurium/) | Hospitality | Year-round | red, pink, white, green |
| [Baby's breath](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/gypsophila/) | Innocence and everlasting love | Year-round | white, pink |
| [Bamboo](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/bamboo/) | Integrity and resilience; "bamboo brings news of peace" | Year-round | green |
| [Bird of paradise](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/strelitzia/) | Freedom and joy | Year-round | orange |
| [Buddha’s hand citron](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/buddhahand/) | Blessing and happiness — in Chinese, “Buddha” sounds like “fortune” | Autumn, Winter | yellow |
| [Calla lily](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/calla/) | Purity and devotion | Year-round | white, yellow, pink, purple, orange |
| [Camellia](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/camellia/) | Admiration and understated elegance | Winter | red, pink, white |
| [Carnation](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/carnation/) | A mother's love and gratitude | Year-round | red, pink, white, yellow, orange, purple, green |
| [Celosia](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/celosia/) | Unfading affection | Summer, Autumn | red, orange, yellow, pink |
| [Chamomile](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/chamomile/) | Energy in adversity | Spring, Summer | white |
| [Cherry blossom](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/cherry/) | The beauty of things that pass | Spring | pink, white |
| [China aster](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/aster/) | Patience and remembrance | Summer, Autumn | purple, pink, white, blue, red |
| [Chinese redbud](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/cercis/) | Family harmony — brothers who stay together | Spring | purple, pink |
| [Chrysanthemum](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/chrysanthemum/) | Longevity and nobility in East Asia; white and yellow are also flowers of mourning | Autumn | white, yellow, pink, purple, red, orange, green |
| [Cornflower](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/cornflower/) | Delicacy and meeting happiness | Spring, Summer | blue, pink, white |
| [Cosmos](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/cosmos/) | Harmony and modesty | Summer, Autumn | pink, white, red |
| [Cotton stems](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/cotton/) | Cherish the people beside you | Autumn | white |
| [Crabapple blossom](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/crabapple/) | Prosperity for the household, in Chinese tradition | Spring | pink, white |
| [Dahlia](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/dahlia/) | Elegance and dignity | Summer, Autumn | red, pink, orange, yellow, white, purple |
| [Daisy (marguerite)](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/daisy/) | Innocence | Spring, Summer | white, yellow, pink |
| [Daylily](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/hemerocallis/) | Forgetting sorrow; in China also a symbol of the mother | Summer | orange, yellow |
| [Delphinium](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/delphinium/) | Lightness and an open heart | Spring, Summer | blue, purple, white, pink |
| [Dendrobium orchid](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/dendrobium/) | Fatherly love and strength — a Father's Day flower in some regions | Year-round | white, purple, pink, green |
| [Forsythia](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/forsythia/) | Anticipation | Spring | yellow |
| [Freesia](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/freesia/) | Innocence and friendship | Winter, Spring | white, yellow, pink, purple, red |
| [Gardenia](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/gardenia/) | Purity and secret love | Summer | white |
| [Gerbera daisy](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/gerbera/) | Cheerfulness | Year-round | red, pink, white, yellow, orange |
| [Ginkgo](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/ginkgo/) | Longevity and endurance — a living fossil that has outlived the dinosaurs | Autumn | yellow, green |
| [Gladiolus](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/gladiolus/) | Strength of character; "rising step by step" in Chinese | Summer, Autumn | red, pink, white, yellow, orange, purple, green |
| [Globe amaranth](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/gomphrena/) | Unfading love | Summer, Autumn | purple, pink, white, red |
| [Heavenly bamboo (nandina)](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/nandina/) | Turning misfortune into fortune — a winter and New Year auspicious plant | Autumn, Winter | red, green |
| [Holly](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/holly/) | Christmas, protection and good luck | Winter | red, green |
| [Hyacinth](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/hyacinth/) | Constancy and rebirth | Winter, Spring | blue, purple, pink, white |
| [Hydrangea](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/hydrangea/) | Gratitude and abundance | Summer | blue, pink, white, purple, green |
| [Iris](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/iris/) | Faith, hope and good news | Spring, Summer | blue, purple, white, yellow |
| [Ivy](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/ivy/) | Fidelity — a traditional wedding foliage | Year-round | green |
| [Jasmine](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/jasmine/) | Sweetness, purity and fidelity | Summer | white |
| [Juniper & arborvitae](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/juniper/) | Constancy and long life — with pine, the evergreen of steadfastness in Chinese tradition | Year-round | green |
| [Lavender](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/lavender/) | Calm and devotion | Summer | purple |
| [Lilac](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/lilac/) | First love | Spring | purple, white, pink |
| [Lily](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/lily/) | Purity; in Chinese weddings, "a hundred years of harmony" | Year-round | white, pink, yellow, orange, red |
| [Lily of the valley](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/lilyvalley/) | The return of happiness | Spring | white |
| [Lingzhi mushroom](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/lingzhi/) | Longevity and good fortune — the “mushroom of immortality” | Year-round | red |
| [Lisianthus](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/lisianthus/) | Appreciation and sincere, unchanging love | Year-round | white, pink, purple, green |
| [Lotus](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/lotus/) | Purity — rising unstained from the mud | Summer | pink, white |
| [Lotus pod](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/lotuspod/) | Many children and blessings | Summer, Autumn | green |
| [Magnolia](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/magnolia/) | Nobility and purity | Spring | white, pink, purple |
| [Marigold](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/marigold/) | Longevity in China; the flower of Día de los Muertos in Mexico and of festival garlands in India | Summer, Autumn | orange, yellow |
| [Mugwort](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/artemisia/) | Health and protection — hung with sweet flag at the Dragon Boat Festival | Summer | silver-grey, green |
| [Myrtle](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/myrtle/) | Love and marriage — a traditional sprig in royal wedding bouquets | Year-round | green |
| [Narcissus (daffodil)](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/narcissus/) | New beginnings; good fortune at Lunar New Year in China | Winter | yellow, white |
| [Orchids (cut)](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/orchid/) | Refinement and elegance | Year-round | white, pink, purple, yellow, green |
| [Osmanthus](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/osmanthus/) | Honour and success; the scent of the Mid-Autumn Festival | Autumn | yellow, orange, white |
| [Peach blossom](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/peach/) | Luck in love and prosperity — a Lunar New Year staple in southern China | Spring | pink, white, red |
| [Peony (herbaceous)](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/herbaceous-peony/) | Romance and a happy marriage | Spring | pink, white, red |
| [Persimmon branches](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/persimmon/) | “May all go as you wish” — in Chinese, persimmon sounds like “matters” | Autumn | orange |
| [Pine](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/pine/) | Longevity and steadfastness | Year-round | green |
| [Plum blossom](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/plum/) | Resilience — one of the "three friends of winter" | Winter | pink, white, red |
| [Pomegranate](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/pomegranate/) | Many children and abundance — its seeds stand for a large family | Summer, Autumn | red, orange |
| [Poppy](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/poppy/) | Remembrance and consolation | Spring | red, orange, yellow, white, pink |
| [Protea](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/protea/) | Courage and transformation | Winter, Spring | pink, white, red |
| [Pussy willow](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/pussywillow/) | "Silver stays": money kept in the household, a Lunar New Year wish | Winter, Spring | silver-grey |
| [Ranunculus](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/ranunculus/) | Radiant charm | Winter, Spring | pink, white, yellow, orange, red, purple |
| [Rose](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/rose/) | Love and romance | Year-round | red, pink, white, yellow, orange, purple, green |
| [Sacred lily (rohdea)](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/rohdea/) | Everlasting youth and prosperity — the Chinese name means “green for ten thousand years” | Year-round | green |
| [Snapdragon](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/snapdragon/) | Graciousness; in southern China, "gold to spare" at New Year | Spring | white, pink, yellow, orange, red |
| [Statice](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/statice/) | Remembrance | Year-round | purple, blue, pink, white, yellow |
| [Stock (Matthiola)](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/stock/) | Lasting beauty and bonds of affection | Winter, Spring | white, pink, purple, yellow |
| [Sunflower](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/sunflower/) | Adoration, loyalty and optimism | Summer | yellow, orange |
| [Sweet flag (acorus)](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/acorus/) | Warding off evil — hung on doors at the Dragon Boat Festival | Spring, Summer | green |
| [Sweet pea](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/sweetpea/) | Blissful pleasure and a fond goodbye | Spring | pink, purple, white, red |
| [Tree peony](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/peony/) | Wealth and honour — the "king of flowers" in China | Spring | pink, red, white, yellow, purple |
| [Tulip](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/tulip/) | A declaration of love | Winter, Spring | red, pink, white, yellow, orange, purple |
| [Water lily](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/waterlily/) | Purity | Summer | white, pink, yellow, purple, blue |
| [Wheat ears](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/wheat/) | Harvest and prosperity — a good-luck stem in Chinese shop-opening gifts | Summer | yellow |
| [Winter daphne](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/daphne/) | Auspicious fragrance — the first of the 24 flower winds | Winter, Spring | pink, white |
| [Winter jasmine](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/winterjasmine/) | Welcoming spring | Winter, Spring | yellow |
| [Winterberry](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/redbean/) | Longing and remembrance; good fortune at Chinese New Year | Autumn, Winter | red, orange |
| [Wisteria](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/wisteria/) | Welcome and long life | Spring | purple, white |
| [Zinnia](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/zinnia/) | Thoughts of absent friends | Summer, Autumn | red, pink, orange, yellow, white, green, purple |

Meanings shift with colour and number as well: [Flower colour meanings across cultures](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/flower-color-meanings/) · [How many flowers to give: meanings and taboos by culture](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/flower-numbers/) · [Birth month flowers](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/birth-month-flowers/) · [Wedding anniversary flowers by year](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/anniversary-flowers/)

## FAQ

### Which flowers mean love?

Rose (Love and romance); Tulip (A declaration of love); Peony (herbaceous) (Romance and a happy marriage); Lisianthus (Appreciation and sincere, unchanging love); Globe amaranth (Unfading love); Agapanthus (Love letters — the "flower of love").

### Which flowers say thank you?

Carnation (A mother's love and gratitude); Hydrangea (Gratitude and abundance); Lisianthus (Appreciation and sincere, unchanging love); Dahlia (Elegance and dignity).

### Which flowers mean remembrance or sympathy?

Chrysanthemum (Longevity and nobility in East Asia; white and yellow are also flowers of mourning); Statice (Remembrance); Poppy (Remembrance and consolation); China aster (Patience and remembrance).

### Which flowers bring luck in Chinese tradition?

Tree peony (Wealth and honour — the "king of flowers" in China); Peach blossom (Luck in love and prosperity — a Lunar New Year staple in southern China); Pussy willow ("Silver stays": money kept in the household, a Lunar New Year wish); Narcissus (daffodil) (New beginnings; good fortune at Lunar New Year in China); Bamboo (Integrity and resilience; "bamboo brings news of peace"); Crabapple blossom (Prosperity for the household, in Chinese tradition); Gladiolus (Strength of character; "rising step by step" in Chinese); Anthurium (Hospitality).

### Are flower meanings the same everywhere?

No. Most "meanings" come from Victorian flower dictionaries, Chinese homophones and poetry, or modern gifting culture, and the same flower can carry opposite messages: chrysanthemums are cheerful gifts in the US and funeral flowers in East Asia and much of Europe.

Last reviewed: 2026-10-31. Meanings listed are the most widely cited ones; flowers without a settled meaning are left out. [About our data](https://floreboard.com/en/about/)


---

<!-- https://floreboard.com/en/guides/birth-month-flowers/ -->

# Birth month flowers

The birth flowers for all twelve months in the British and American tradition, with each flower's season, pet safety and tips for working it into a birthday bouquet.

## Key facts

- January carnation, February violet, March daffodil, April daisy, May lily of the valley, June rose.
- July larkspur (delphinium), August gladiolus, September aster, October marigold, November chrysanthemum, December narcissus.
- Lily of the valley, the May flower, is highly toxic to cats.

For florists

## Turn this guide into a client design

We fill in the brief from this page. No stock yet? Load the sample flowers and see a recipe, quote and preview image in about a minute. New shops get 30 free credits.

Try it as a design — free

| Month | Birth flowers | Florist notes (season, pets) |
| --- | --- | --- |
| **January** | [Carnation](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/carnation/), Snowdrop | Carnation: Year-round |
| **February** | Violet, Primrose | — |
| **March** | [Narcissus (daffodil)](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/narcissus/) | Narcissus (daffodil): Winter |
| **April** | [Daisy (marguerite)](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/daisy/), [Sweet pea](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/sweetpea/) | Daisy (marguerite): Spring, Summer; Sweet pea: Spring |
| **May** | [Lily of the valley](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/lilyvalley/), Hawthorn | Lily of the valley: Spring, highly toxic to cats |
| **June** | [Rose](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/rose/), Honeysuckle | Rose: Year-round |
| **July** | [Delphinium](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/delphinium/), [Water lily](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/waterlily/) | Delphinium: Spring, Summer; Water lily: Summer |
| **August** | [Gladiolus](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/gladiolus/), [Poppy](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/poppy/) | Gladiolus: Summer, Autumn; Poppy: Spring |
| **September** | Aster, Morning glory | — |
| **October** | [Marigold](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/marigold/), [Cosmos](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/cosmos/) | Marigold: Summer, Autumn; Cosmos: Summer, Autumn |
| **November** | [Chrysanthemum](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/chrysanthemum/) | Chrysanthemum: Autumn |
| **December** | [Narcissus (daffodil)](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/narcissus/), [Holly](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/holly/) | Narcissus (daffodil): Winter; Holly: Winter |

## For florists

- A birth flower need not be the whole bouquet: one or two stems as the focal accent, with a line on the card explaining it, is enough.

- Several birth flowers are seasonal. When the flower is out of season, use its colour or a close substitute and say so.

- Record the birthday and the flower in the client profile so next year's order starts from it.

[Birthday flowers](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/birthday-flowers/) · [Flower meanings: the language of flowers](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/flower-meanings/) · [Wedding anniversary flowers by year](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/anniversary-flowers/)

## FAQ

### What is the birth flower for each month?

January: Carnation and Snowdrop; February: Violet and Primrose; March: Narcissus (daffodil); April: Daisy (marguerite) and Sweet pea; May: Lily of the valley and Hawthorn; June: Rose and Honeysuckle; July: Delphinium and Water lily; August: Gladiolus and Poppy; September: Aster and Morning glory; October: Marigold and Cosmos; November: Chrysanthemum; December: Narcissus (daffodil) and Holly.

### Why do most months have two birth flowers?

The lists grew from different British and American traditions, so most months ended up with a primary and a secondary flower. Either is correct.

### Which birth flowers are unsafe around pets?

Lily of the valley (May) is highly toxic to cats. Also flagged as mildly toxic in our knowledge base: carnation, narcissus (daffodil), daisy (marguerite), sweet pea, delphinium, gladiolus, poppy, chrysanthemum, holly.

### Is it fine to give chrysanthemums for a November birthday?

In the US, UK and Australia, yes. For recipients from China, Japan or Korea avoid white and yellow chrysanthemums, which are funeral flowers there, and choose another flower.

Last reviewed: 2026-10-31. Lists follow the common British and American tradition; other countries have their own. [About our data](https://floreboard.com/en/about/)


---

<!-- https://floreboard.com/en/guides/anniversary-flowers/ -->

# Wedding anniversary flowers by year

The traditional flower for each wedding anniversary from the 1st to the 50th, with season, vase life and pet safety, and what to do when the flower is out of season.

## Key facts

- 1st carnation, 5th daisy, 10th daffodil, 15th rose, 25th iris, 30th lily, 50th yellow roses and violets.
- Lists vary between sources; lily of the valley (one choice for the 2nd) and lilies (30th) are highly toxic to cats.

For florists

## Turn this guide into a client design

We fill in the brief from this page. No stock yet? Load the sample flowers and see a recipe, quote and preview image in about a minute. New shops get 30 free credits.

Try it as a design — free

| Anniversary | Flower | Also listed as | In season | Vase life | Pets |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| **1st** | [Carnation](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/carnation/) | — | Year-round | 10–14 days | mildly toxic |
| **2nd** | [Lily of the valley](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/lilyvalley/) | [Cosmos](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/cosmos/) | Spring | 4–7 days | ⚠ toxic to cats |
| **3rd** | [Sunflower](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/sunflower/) | — | Summer | 6–10 days | ✓ ASPCA non-toxic |
| **4th** | [Hydrangea](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/hydrangea/) | Geranium | Summer | 5–7 days | mildly toxic |
| **5th** | [Daisy (marguerite)](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/daisy/) | — | Spring, Summer | 5–7 days | mildly toxic |
| **6th** | [Calla lily](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/calla/) | — | Year-round | 7–10 days | mildly toxic |
| **7th** | [Freesia](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/freesia/) | — | Winter, Spring | 5–8 days | — |
| **8th** | [Lilac](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/lilac/) | [Clematis](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/clematis/) | Spring | 3–5 days | — |
| **9th** | [Bird of paradise](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/strelitzia/) | [Poppy](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/poppy/) | Year-round | 10–14 days | mildly toxic |
| **10th** | [Narcissus (daffodil)](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/narcissus/) | — | Winter | 4–7 days | mildly toxic |
| **11th** | [Tulip](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/tulip/) | Morning glory | Winter, Spring | 4–7 days | mildly toxic |
| **12th** | [Peony (herbaceous)](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/herbaceous-peony/) | — | Spring | 5–7 days | mildly toxic |
| **13th** | [Chrysanthemum](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/chrysanthemum/) | — | Autumn | 10–14 days | mildly toxic |
| **14th** | [Dahlia](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/dahlia/) | [Orchids (cut)](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/orchid/) | Summer, Autumn | 4–6 days | mildly toxic |
| **15th** | [Rose](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/rose/) | — | Year-round | 5–7 days | ✓ ASPCA non-toxic |
| **20th** | Aster | — | — | — | — |
| **25th** | [Iris](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/iris/) | — | Spring, Summer | 4–6 days | mildly toxic |
| **30th** | [Lily](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/lily/) | — | Year-round | 7–10 days | ⚠ toxic to cats |
| **40th** | [Gladiolus](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/gladiolus/) | — | Summer, Autumn | 7–10 days | mildly toxic |
| **50th** | Yellow roses and violets | — | — | — | — |

There is no single authoritative list: published lists agree on most milestone years but differ on several others, which is why some years show a second flower. Season, vase life and pet notes refer to the first flower. In China there is no fixed flower per year; roses in a meaningful number are the usual choice. [How many flowers to give: meanings and taboos by culture](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/flower-numbers/)

[Flower meanings: the language of flowers](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/flower-meanings/) · [Wedding flowers by season](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/wedding-flowers/) · [Birth month flowers](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/birth-month-flowers/)

## FAQ

### What is the flower for a first wedding anniversary?

Carnations. They last 10–14 days in a vase and are available all year.

### What flower is for a 10th anniversary?

Daffodils (narcissus). Condition them alone for 12–24 hours before mixing them with other flowers.

### What flower is for a 25th and a 50th anniversary?

Iris for the 25th (silver) and yellow roses with violets for the 50th (golden).

### What if the anniversary flower is out of season?

Several are seasonal: lily of the valley for year 2 (spring); sunflower for year 3 (summer); hydrangea for year 4 (summer); daisy (marguerite) for year 5 (spring, summer); freesia for year 7 (winter, spring); lilac for year 8 (spring). Use the flower's colour, a close substitute, or simply the couple's wedding flowers.

Last reviewed: 2026-10-31. A Western convention; lists vary slightly between sources. [About our data](https://floreboard.com/en/about/)


---

<!-- https://floreboard.com/en/guides/cut-flower-care/ -->

# Cut flower care and conditioning guide

How florists condition cut flowers so they last: seven steps for every stem, plus the flowers that need shallow water, searing, splitting, no fridge or no fruit nearby.

## Key facts

- Clean water and a fresh cut matter more than anything else.
- Strip all foliage below the waterline and use flower food at the labelled dose.
- Keep ethylene-sensitive flowers away from ripening fruit.
- Condition daffodils alone for 12–24 hours before mixing them with other flowers.

For florists

## Turn this guide into a client design

We fill in the brief from this page. No stock yet? Load the sample flowers and see a recipe, quote and preview image in about a minute. New shops get 30 free credits.

Try it as a design — free

## The seven steps that apply to almost every flower

- **Start with clean buckets and vases** — Bacteria blocking the stems is the main reason cut flowers fade early. Scrub with detergent or dilute bleach and rinse.
- **Recut the stems** — Take 2–3 cm off at an angle with a sharp knife or snips. Do not crush the stem (woody branches are the exception). Get it into water straight away.
- **Strip everything below the waterline** — Submerged leaves rot quickly and turn the water into bacterial soup.
- **Use clean water with flower food** — Mix at the dose on the packet. Room-temperature water suits most flowers; bulb flowers (tulips, hyacinths, narcissus) prefer it cold.
- **Let them drink before you arrange** — At least two hours, ideally overnight, somewhere cool and out of the light.
- **Place them well** — Away from direct sun, radiators, air-conditioning vents and ripening fruit.
- **Top up daily, change the water every two or three days** — Trim another 1–2 cm off the stems when you do, and remove faded blooms.

## Flowers that need something different

| Handling | Flowers | Why |
| --- | --- | --- |
| Condition alone first (sap harms other flowers) | [Narcissus (daffodil)](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/narcissus/) | 12–24 hours in their own bucket; do not recut when adding them to the mix. |
| Remove the anthers (pollen stains) | [Lily](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/lily/) | Pull the anthers as each bloom opens, before the pollen ripens. |
| Keep away from fruit and fading flowers (ethylene-sensitive) | [Lily](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/lily/), [Carnation](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/carnation/), [Baby's breath](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/gypsophila/), [Orchids (cut)](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/orchid/), [Delphinium](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/delphinium/), [Freesia](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/freesia/), [Stock (Matthiola)](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/stock/), [Dendrobium orchid](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/dendrobium/), [Waxflower](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/waxflower/), [Snapdragon](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/snapdragon/), [Alstroemeria](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/alstroemeria/), [Sweet pea](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/sweetpea/), [Agapanthus](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/agapanthus/), [Bouvardia](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/bouvardia/) | Ethylene makes them drop florets, close up or wilt days early. |
| Shallow water only | [Gerbera daisy](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/gerbera/), [Calla lily](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/calla/), [Tulip](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/tulip/), [Anemone](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/anemone/), [Ranunculus](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/ranunculus/), [Sweet pea](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/sweetpea/), [Grape hyacinth (Muscari)](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/muscari/) | Soft or hairy stems rot when they sit deep; a few centimetres is enough. |
| Store and transport upright | [Snapdragon](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/snapdragon/), [Gladiolus](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/gladiolus/), [Lupin](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/lupin/), [Delphinium](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/delphinium/) | Spikes bend upward within hours if laid flat. |
| Sear or hot-water dip the cut ends | [Poppy](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/poppy/), [Clematis](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/clematis/), [Dahlia](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/dahlia/), [Hellebore](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/hellebore/), [Astilbe](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/astilbe/), [Dusty miller](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/dustymiller/), [Wisteria](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/wisteria/) | Seals milky sap or forces water into stems that wilt easily. |
| Split the woody ends | [Plum blossom](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/plum/), [Wintersweet](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/wintersweet/), [Silver wattle (mimosa)](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/acacia/), [Cherry blossom](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/cherry/), [Peach blossom](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/peach/), [Crabapple blossom](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/crabapple/), [Bamboo](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/bamboo/), [Pine](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/pine/), [Maple branches](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/maple/), [Magnolia](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/magnolia/), [Wisteria](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/wisteria/), [Forsythia](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/forsythia/), [Willow](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/willow/), [Pussy willow](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/pussywillow/), [Red-twig dogwood](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/dogwood/), [Azalea](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/azalea/), [Spiraea](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/spiraea/), [Osmanthus](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/osmanthus/), [Holly](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/holly/), [Lilac](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/lilac/), [Viburnum (snowball)](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/viburnum/), [Curly willow](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/curlywillow/), [Juniper & arborvitae](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/juniper/), [Ginkgo](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/ginkgo/), [Pear blossom](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/pear/), [Purple-leaf plum](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/purpleleafplum/), [Photinia](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/photinia/), [Amur honeysuckle](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/lonicera/), [False spiraea](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/sorbaria/), [Chinese redbud](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/cercis/), [Winter jasmine](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/winterjasmine/), [Winter daphne](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/daphne/), [Japanese kerria](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/kerria/), [Crape myrtle](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/crapemyrtle/), [Bougainvillea](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/bougainvillea/) | Cut a cross 2–3 cm into the base, or crush it lightly, and stand in deep water. |
| No cold storage | [Anthurium](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/anthurium/), [Heliconia](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/heliconia/), [Bird of paradise](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/strelitzia/), [Dendrobium orchid](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/dendrobium/), [Orchids (cut)](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/orchid/) | Tropical flowers are damaged by chilling below about 10–13 °C. |
| Short-lived: sell and deliver fast | [Tulip](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/tulip/), [Tree peony](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/peony/), [Narcissus (daffodil)](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/narcissus/), [Camellia](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/camellia/), [Iris](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/iris/), [Anemone](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/anemone/), [Lily of the valley](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/lilyvalley/), [Gardenia](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/gardenia/), [Jasmine](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/jasmine/), [Dahlia](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/dahlia/), [Lotus](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/lotus/), [Water lily](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/waterlily/), [Clematis](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/clematis/), [Poppy](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/poppy/), [Sweet pea](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/sweetpea/), [Grape hyacinth (Muscari)](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/muscari/), [Chinese iris](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/irislactea/), [Hardy begonia](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/begonia/) | Four days or less at the low end — make up on the day and tell the client. |
| Keep dry (no water at all) | [Pussy willow](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/pussywillow/), [Cotton stems](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/cotton/), [Wheat ears](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/wheat/), [Lotus pod](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/lotuspod/) | Dried or dry-kept materials mould or sprout when wet. |

Every flower page has its own handling note. See also: [Longest-lasting cut flowers](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/long-lasting-flowers/) · [Cut flower vase life chart](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/flower-vase-life/) · [Flowers that dry well](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/flowers-for-drying/) · [Floristry glossary](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/floristry-glossary/)

## FAQ

### How do you make cut flowers last longer?

Use a clean vase, recut the stems, strip leaves below the waterline, add flower food, keep the flowers cool and away from fruit, and change the water every two or three days.

### What is in flower food, and does it work?

Sugar for energy, an acidifier that helps the stems take up water, and a biocide that keeps bacteria down. Used at the labelled dose it reliably outperforms plain water.

### Why should flowers be kept away from fruit?

Ripening fruit gives off ethylene gas, which makes sensitive flowers drop petals and wilt early. The most sensitive in our guide include lily, carnation, baby's breath, orchids (cut), delphinium, freesia, stock (matthiola), dendrobium orchid.

### Should flower stems be cut at an angle?

An angled cut gives a larger surface and stops the stem sitting flat on the bottom of the vase. What matters most is a clean, fresh cut with a sharp blade and getting the stem into water immediately.

### Can daffodils be mixed with other flowers?

Yes, after conditioning them alone for 12–24 hours so the sap drains; add them without recutting.

Last reviewed: 2026-10-31. Reference values from common trade practice. Real results vary with variety, origin and conditioning. [About our data](https://floreboard.com/en/about/)


---

<!-- https://floreboard.com/en/guides/pet-safe-flowers/ -->

# Pet-safe flowers for cats and dogs

Before sending flowers to a home with pets: common cut flowers that are highly toxic to cats or mildly toxic to cats and dogs, and what florists can do.

## Highly toxic to cats

- [Lily](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/lily/)
- [Lily of the valley](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/lilyvalley/)
- [Azalea](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/azalea/)
- [Daylily](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/hemerocallis/)

For florists

## Turn this guide into a client design

We fill in the brief from this page. No stock yet? Load the sample flowers and see a recipe, quote and preview image in about a minute. New shops get 30 free credits.

Try it as a design — free

## Mildly toxic to cats and dogs

- [Hydrangea](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/hydrangea/)
- [Tulip](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/tulip/)
- [Carnation](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/carnation/)
- [Bird of paradise](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/strelitzia/)
- [Tree peony](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/peony/)
- [Peony (herbaceous)](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/herbaceous-peony/)
- [Chrysanthemum](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/chrysanthemum/)
- [Narcissus (daffodil)](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/narcissus/)
- [Amaryllis (Hippeastrum)](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/amaryllis/)
- [Iris](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/iris/)
- [Delphinium](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/delphinium/)
- [Anemone](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/anemone/)
- [Eucalyptus](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/eucalyptus/)
- [Monstera leaf](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/monstera/)
- [Winterberry](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/redbean/)
- [Calla lily](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/calla/)
- [Hyacinth](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/hyacinth/)
- [Gardenia](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/gardenia/)
- [Lavender](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/lavender/)
- [Dahlia](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/dahlia/)
- [Anthurium](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/anthurium/)
- [Clematis](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/clematis/)
- [Lupin](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/lupin/)
- [Poppy](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/poppy/)
- [Daisy (marguerite)](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/daisy/)
- [Wisteria](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/wisteria/)
- [Heavenly bamboo (nandina)](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/nandina/)
- [Asparagus fern](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/asparagus/)
- [Ivy](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/ivy/)
- [Holly](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/holly/)
- [Ranunculus](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/ranunculus/)
- [Gladiolus](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/gladiolus/)
- [Sweet pea](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/sweetpea/)
- [Hellebore](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/hellebore/)
- [Allium](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/allium/)
- [Star of Bethlehem (Ornithogalum)](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/ornithogalum/)
- [Hypericum berries](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/hypericum/)
- [Hosta leaves](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/hosta/)
- [Chinese iris](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/irislactea/)
- [Red spider lily](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/lycoris/)
- [Hardy begonia](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/begonia/)
- [Sacred lily (rohdea)](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/rohdea/)
- [Winter daphne](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/daphne/)
- [Oriental bittersweet](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/celastrus/)
- [Ti plant (cordyline)](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/cordyline/)

## Listed by the ASPCA as non-toxic to cats and dogs

| Flower | ASPCA entry (scientific name) | Vase life | In season |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| [Rose](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/rose/) | Rosa species | 5–7 days | Year-round |
| [Sunflower](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/sunflower/) | Helianthus | 6–10 days | Summer |
| [Gerbera daisy](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/gerbera/) | Gerbera jamesonii | 6–10 days | Year-round |
| [Orchids (cut)](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/orchid/) | Phalaenopsis sp. | 10–21 days | Year-round |
| [Camellia](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/camellia/) | Camellia japonica | 3–5 days | Winter |
| [Zinnia](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/zinnia/) | Zinnia species | 5–7 days | Summer, Autumn |
| [Celosia](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/celosia/) | Celosia spicata | 7–10 days | Summer, Autumn |
| [Snapdragon](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/snapdragon/) | Antirrhinum majus | 7–10 days | Spring |
| [China aster](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/aster/) | Callistephus chinensis | 7–10 days | Summer, Autumn |
| [Alstroemeria](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/alstroemeria/) | Alstroemeria | 10–14 days | Year-round |

This list holds only flowers we checked one by one against the ASPCA's own pages (on 2026-10-05), so it is short; absence from it does not mean a flower is toxic. Three cautions: ASPCA entries are for specific species — the orchid entry, for example, covers only Phalaenopsis; non-toxic does not mean edible, and any plant can cause vomiting or diarrhoea if enough is eaten; and a single lily in a mixed bouquet makes the whole bouquet dangerous in a home with cats.

## What florists can do

- Ask whether the recipient has cats or dogs, and keep it in the client profile.

- Homes with cats: avoid lilies, lily of the valley and azalea entirely; for other toxic flowers, advise keeping them out of reach.

- Floreboard automatically avoids flowers a client's pets cannot be around and flags them in its design review.

## FAQ

### Which flowers are most dangerous for cats?

Lily, Lily of the valley, Azalea, Daylily. True lilies (Lilium) are especially dangerous: small amounts of petals, pollen or even vase water can cause acute kidney failure in cats.

### Is a calla lily a true lily?

No. Calla lilies are not Lilium, but they are still mildly toxic to cats and dogs.

### Which flowers are safe for cats and dogs?

Listed by the ASPCA as non-toxic to cats and dogs, and checked by us entry by entry: rose, sunflower, gerbera daisy, orchids (cut), camellia, zinnia, celosia, snapdragon, china aster, alstroemeria. Non-toxic does not mean edible — eating a lot of any plant can still upset the stomach.

### If a flower is not on this list, is it safe?

Not necessarily. This list only covers flowers we have flagged; check the ASPCA list for the exact species or ask a vet.

Last reviewed: 2026-10-31. Pet toxicity follows the ASPCA toxic and non-toxic plants list. [ASPCA](https://www.aspca.org/pet-care/animal-poison-control/toxic-and-non-toxic-plants)


---

<!-- https://floreboard.com/en/guides/floral-design-styles/ -->

# Floral design styles compared

Key traits of the main Japanese, Chinese and European floral design styles, and the typical stem counts and number of materials for each.

| Style | Origin | Key traits | Stems and materials |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| **Ikenobo** | Japan | The oldest ikebana school, known for rikka and shoka. Three main lines (shin, soe, tai) in roughly 7:5:3 heights, held in a kenzan, with generous empty space and a strong sense of season. | at least 3 stems; no more than 30 stems |
| **Ohara** | Japan | Founded in the Meiji era and known for moribana: low, wide landscapes in a shallow suiban with visible water, and easy use of Western flowers. | no more than 35 stems |
| **Sogetsu** | Japan | A modern, avant-garde school: personal expression and sculptural forms, open to metal, glass and dried branches. | — |
| **Chinese literati style** | China | Poetic and restrained: plum, orchid, bamboo and chrysanthemum (the "four gentlemen"), pine-bamboo-plum, a single expressive branch over abundance. | ideally no more than 9 stems; no more than 12 stems; at most 3 kinds of material |
| **Chinese zen style** | China | Zen minimalism: one flower can be a world. Dried branches, moss and stone, quiet earth tones and wide empty space. | ideally no more than 5 stems; no more than 7 stems; at most 2 kinds of material |
| **Biedermeier** | Europe | A classic round European design: concentric rings of tightly packed blooms with no gaps, used for bridal bouquets and formal events. | at least 10 stems; ideally 15+ stems; at most 3 focal flowers; needs foliage |
| **English garden style** | England | Loose and romantic, as if just picked from the garden: many varieties, natural irregular shapes, plenty of foliage and buds. | at least 3 kinds of material; needs foliage |

Stem ranges are the reference thresholds Floreboard uses in its design review, drawn from common practice in each style. They are guidance, not rules — each school has many forms, and teachers differ.

## FAQ

### What is the difference between Ikenobo, Ohara and Sogetsu?

Ikenobo is the oldest school, built on three main lines and empty space; Ohara is known for moribana landscapes in shallow containers; Sogetsu is modern and sculptural, centred on personal expression.

### How is Chinese flower arranging different from ikebana?

Chinese literati arranging leans on poetry and symbolism (plum, orchid, bamboo, chrysanthemum) and often a single branch; ikebana schools have more formal rules for structure and line proportions.

### When is a Biedermeier bouquet used?

Mostly for bridal bouquets and formal events: tightly packed concentric rings, usually 15 stems or more with a foliage collar.

For florists

## Turn this guide into a client design

We fill in the brief from this page. No stock yet? Load the sample flowers and see a recipe, quote and preview image in about a minute. New shops get 30 free credits.

Try it as a design — free

Last reviewed: 2026-10-31.


---

<!-- https://floreboard.com/en/guides/floristry-glossary/ -->

# Floristry glossary

31 floristry terms explained in plain language, each with its Chinese equivalent: design roles, ikebana vocabulary, mechanics, conditioning and pricing.

Anther 花药The pollen-bearing tip of the stamen. Florists remove lily anthers to stop pollen staining clothes.Bent neck 弯颈A rose head that droops just below the bloom, usually from an air block in the stem. Recut and stand deep in warm water.Biedermeier 比德迈尔A classic round European bouquet of tightly packed blooms in concentric rings, usually finished with a foliage collar.Botrytis 灰霉病A grey mould that spots and rots petals kept wet or crowded. Keep petals dry and give the flowers air.Conditioning 预处理（醒花）Preparing stems before arranging: recut, strip the lower leaves, and let them drink in clean water with flower food for a few hours in a cool place.Ethylene 乙烯A gas given off by ripening fruit, fading flowers and exhaust. It makes sensitive flowers drop petals and wilt early.Filler flower 配花（填充花）Small or clustered blooms that fill gaps and soften the transition between focal flowers and foliage.Floral foam 花泥A water-absorbing block that holds stems at any angle. Convenient, but single-use plastic; many designers now prefer reusable mechanics.Flower food 保鲜剂A sachet mix of sugar for energy, an acidifier that helps water uptake and a biocide that keeps bacteria down.Focal flower 主花（焦点花）The largest, most eye-catching blooms that set the theme of a design. Designers usually keep to three kinds or fewer.Foliage 叶材Leaves and greenery that frame a design, hide the mechanics and define its outline.Forcing 催花Bringing branches cut in bud into warmth so they flower early indoors — forsythia, plum, peach, cherry.Geotropism 向地性The tendency of spikes such as snapdragon and gladiolus to bend upward when laid flat — store them upright.Guard petals 保护瓣The tough outer petals of a rose that protected the bud. Bruised ones are peeled off; healthy ones can stay.Hand-tied bouquet 手扎花束A bouquet assembled in the hand and tied at one binding point, so it can stand in a vase without rearranging.Ikebana (kado) 花道（生け花）The Japanese art of arranging flowers, organised into schools such as Ikenobo, Ohara and Sogetsu, each with its own forms.Kenzan 剑山A heavy metal base studded with upright pins that holds stems in a shallow container.Line flower 线条花Tall spikes or branches that establish height, width and direction — delphinium, snapdragon, gladiolus.Ma (negative space) 留白（间）The deliberate empty space in East Asian arranging; what is left out matters as much as what is placed.Margin 利润率Profit divided by selling price. A 3× markup is a 67% margin on materials.Markup 加价倍率Selling price divided by cost. A 3× markup means a stem that costs 1 sells for 3.Mechanics 固定方式Whatever holds the stems in place: a kenzan, a grid of tape, chicken wire, foam, or the spiral of a hand-tied bouquet.Moribana 盛花The "piled-up flowers" style created by the Ohara school: a low, wide arrangement in a shallow container with visible water.Production sheet 制作稿The working document for making a design: recipe, container, mechanics, stem lengths and assembly order.Recipe 配方The exact list of stems, by kind and count, that goes into one design.Rikka 立花The oldest formal Ikenobo style: a tall, upright composition that represents a natural landscape.Shin, soe, tai 真、副、体The three main lines of a classical ikebana arrangement, traditionally in heights of roughly 7 : 5 : 3.Shoka 生花A simpler Ikenobo style built on three main lines — shin, soe and tai — rising from a single point.Spiral technique 螺旋花脚Laying each stem at the same angle around the binding point so the stems fan out like a spiral and the bouquet stands on its own.Suiban 水盘The shallow, wide container used for moribana.Vase life 水养寿命（瓶插期）How many days a cut stem stays presentable in water. It depends on variety, origin, and above all conditioning and clean water.

[Floral design styles compared](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/floral-design-styles/) · [Cut flower care and conditioning guide](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/cut-flower-care/) · [Flower arrangement checklist before delivery](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/arrangement-checklist/) · [How florists price arrangements: cost, markup and margin](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/florist-pricing-and-margin/)

## FAQ

### What does conditioning flowers mean?

Preparing stems before arranging: recut, strip the lower leaves, and let them drink in clean water with flower food for a few hours in a cool place.

### What is a kenzan in floristry?

A heavy metal base studded with upright pins that holds stems in a shallow container.

### What is a focal flower in floristry?

The largest, most eye-catching blooms that set the theme of a design. Designers usually keep to three kinds or fewer.

### What is ethylene and why does it matter for flowers?

A gas given off by ripening fruit, fading flowers and exhaust. It makes sensitive flowers drop petals and wilt early.

For florists

## Turn this guide into a client design

We fill in the brief from this page. No stock yet? Load the sample flowers and see a recipe, quote and preview image in about a minute. New shops get 30 free credits.

Try it as a design — free

Last reviewed: 2026-10-31. [About our data](https://floreboard.com/en/about/)


---

<!-- https://floreboard.com/en/guides/seasonal-flowers/spring/ -->

# Spring flowers in season

Cut flowers, branches and foliage in season in spring (Northern Hemisphere), with vase life, fragrance, pet safety and this season's holiday price surges.

**Spring** [Summer](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/seasonal-flowers/summer/) · [Autumn](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/seasonal-flowers/autumn/) · [Winter](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/seasonal-flowers/winter/)

## Cut flowers in season

| Flower | Vase life | Fragrance | Pets |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| [Tulip](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/tulip/) | 4–7 days | None | mildly toxic |
| [Chamomile](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/chamomile/) | 5–7 days | Light | — |
| [Tree peony](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/peony/) | 3–5 days | Light | mildly toxic |
| [Peony (herbaceous)](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/herbaceous-peony/) | 5–7 days | Light | mildly toxic |
| [Amaryllis (Hippeastrum)](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/amaryllis/) | 7–14 days | None | mildly toxic |
| [Bupleurum](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/bupleurum/) | 7–10 days | None | — |
| [Canterbury bells](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/campanula/) | 5–8 days | None | — |
| [Iris](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/iris/) | 4–6 days | Light | mildly toxic |
| [Delphinium](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/delphinium/) | 5–8 days | None | mildly toxic |
| [Anemone](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/anemone/) | 3–6 days | None | mildly toxic |
| [Freesia](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/freesia/) | 5–8 days | Strong | — |
| [Hyacinth](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/hyacinth/) | 5–7 days | Strong | mildly toxic |
| [Lily of the valley](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/lilyvalley/) | 4–7 days | Strong | ⚠ toxic to cats |
| [Stock (Matthiola)](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/stock/) | 7–10 days | Strong | — |
| [Queen Anne's lace (Ammi)](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/queenannes/) | 5–7 days | None | — |
| [Protea](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/protea/) | 10–14 days | None | — |
| [Waxflower](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/waxflower/) | 10–14 days | Light | — |
| [Clematis](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/clematis/) | 4–6 days | None | mildly toxic |
| [Lupin](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/lupin/) | 5–7 days | None | mildly toxic |
| [Snapdragon](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/snapdragon/) | 7–10 days | None | ✓ ASPCA non-toxic |
| [Poppy](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/poppy/) | 2–4 days | None | mildly toxic |
| [Daisy (marguerite)](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/daisy/) | 5–7 days | None | mildly toxic |
| [Calendula](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/calendula/) | 5–7 days | Light | — |
| [Cornflower](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/cornflower/) | 5–7 days | None | — |
| [Ranunculus](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/ranunculus/) | 5–8 days | None | mildly toxic |
| [Sweet pea](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/sweetpea/) | 4–7 days | Strong | mildly toxic |
| [Hellebore](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/hellebore/) | 7–10 days | None | mildly toxic |
| [Allium](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/allium/) | 10–14 days | Light | mildly toxic |
| [Pincushion protea](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/leucospermum/) | 10–14 days | None | — |
| [Kangaroo paw](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/kangaroopaw/) | 10–14 days | None | — |
| [Grape hyacinth (Muscari)](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/muscari/) | 4–7 days | Light | — |
| [Chinese iris](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/irislactea/) | 3–6 days | Light | mildly toxic |

For florists

## Turn this guide into a client design

We fill in the brief from this page. No stock yet? Load the sample flowers and see a recipe, quote and preview image in about a minute. New shops get 30 free credits.

Try it as a design — free

## Branches and foliage in season

[Silver wattle (mimosa)](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/acacia/) · [Cherry blossom](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/cherry/) · [Peach blossom](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/peach/) · [Crabapple blossom](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/crabapple/) · [Magnolia](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/magnolia/) · [Wisteria](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/wisteria/) · [Forsythia](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/forsythia/) · [Willow](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/willow/) · [Pussy willow](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/pussywillow/) · [Azalea](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/azalea/) · [Spiraea](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/spiraea/) · [Lilac](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/lilac/) · [Viburnum (snowball)](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/viburnum/) · [Pear blossom](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/pear/) · [Purple-leaf plum](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/purpleleafplum/) · [Sweet flag (acorus)](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/acorus/) · [Chinese redbud](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/cercis/) · [Winter jasmine](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/winterjasmine/) · [Winter daphne](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/daphne/) · [Japanese kerria](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/kerria/) · [Bougainvillea](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/bougainvillea/)

## Year-round staples

[Rose](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/rose/) · [Lily](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/lily/) · [Carnation](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/carnation/) · [Gerbera daisy](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/gerbera/) · [Lisianthus](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/lisianthus/) · [Baby's breath](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/gypsophila/) · [Bird of paradise](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/strelitzia/) · [Orchids (cut)](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/orchid/) · [Calla lily](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/calla/) · [Statice](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/statice/) · [Anthurium](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/anthurium/) · [Dendrobium orchid](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/dendrobium/) · [Craspedia (billy buttons)](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/craspedia/) · [Alstroemeria](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/alstroemeria/) · [Heliconia](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/heliconia/) · [Star of Bethlehem (Ornithogalum)](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/ornithogalum/) · [Bouvardia](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/bouvardia/)

## What florists should know

- Short-lived — deliver the same or next day: [Tulip](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/tulip/), [Tree peony](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/peony/), [Iris](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/iris/), [Anemone](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/anemone/), [Lily of the valley](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/lilyvalley/), [Clematis](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/clematis/), [Poppy](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/poppy/), [Sweet pea](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/sweetpea/), [Grape hyacinth (Muscari)](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/muscari/), [Chinese iris](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/irislactea/)

- Strongly scented — not for hospital visits, condolences or dining tables: [Freesia](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/freesia/), [Hyacinth](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/hyacinth/), [Lily of the valley](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/lilyvalley/), [Stock (Matthiola)](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/stock/), [Sweet pea](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/sweetpea/)

## Holidays this season

- [Women's Day](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/holidays/womens-day/) — Chinese mainland · 1.2–1.5× · 14 days ahead
- [White Day](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/holidays/white-day/) — Japan, Korea · 1.2–1.5× · 14 days ahead
- [Qingming](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/holidays/qingming/) — Chinese mainland · 1.5–2× · 14 days ahead
- [Mother's Day](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/holidays/mothers-day/) — Chinese mainland, United States, Japan · 1.5–2.5× · 21 days ahead
- [Parents' Day](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/holidays/korean-parents-day/) — Korea · 1.5–2.5× · 21 days ahead
- [520 (May 20)](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/holidays/520/) — Chinese mainland · 1.5–2× · 14 days ahead

## FAQ

### What flowers are in season in spring?

Cut flowers: Tulip, Chamomile, Tree peony, Peony (herbaceous), Amaryllis (Hippeastrum), Bupleurum, Canterbury bells, Iris, Delphinium, Anemone, Freesia, Hyacinth, Lily of the valley, Stock (Matthiola), Queen Anne's lace (Ammi), Protea, Waxflower, Clematis, Lupin, Snapdragon, Poppy, Daisy (marguerite), Calendula, Cornflower, Ranunculus, Sweet pea, Hellebore, Allium, Pincushion protea, Kangaroo paw, Grape hyacinth (Muscari), Chinese iris. Branches and foliage: Silver wattle (mimosa), Cherry blossom, Peach blossom, Crabapple blossom, Magnolia, Wisteria, Forsythia, Willow, Pussy willow, Azalea, Spiraea, Lilac, Viburnum (snowball), Pear blossom, Purple-leaf plum, Sweet flag (acorus), Chinese redbud, Winter jasmine, Winter daphne, Japanese kerria, Bougainvillea.

### Which spring flowers last longest?

Among this season's cut flowers: Protea, Waxflower, Allium, Pincushion protea.

### Which spring flowers fade fastest?

Tulip, Tree peony, Iris, Anemone, Lily of the valley, Clematis, Poppy, Sweet pea, Grape hyacinth (Muscari), Chinese iris usually last only a few days; deliver them the same or next day and avoid making them far ahead.

### Which spring holidays push flower prices up?

Women's Day (rose, carnation, lily, typically 1.2–1.5×); White Day (rose, typically 1.2–1.5×); Qingming (chrysanthemum, lily, typically 1.5–2×); Mother's Day (carnation, lily, rose, typically 1.5–2.5×); Parents' Day (carnation, typically 1.5–2.5×); 520 (May 20) (rose, typically 1.5–2×).

Last reviewed: 2026-10-31. Seasons are for the Northern Hemisphere; "in season" means plentiful supply and steady quality — greenhouse and imported stems can be available at other times. Reference values from common trade practice. Real results vary with variety, origin and conditioning.


---

<!-- https://floreboard.com/en/guides/seasonal-flowers/summer/ -->

# Summer flowers in season

Cut flowers, branches and foliage in season in summer (Northern Hemisphere), with vase life, fragrance, pet safety and this season's holiday price surges.

[Spring](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/seasonal-flowers/spring/) **Summer** [Autumn](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/seasonal-flowers/autumn/) · [Winter](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/seasonal-flowers/winter/)

## Cut flowers in season

| Flower | Vase life | Fragrance | Pets |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| [Sunflower](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/sunflower/) | 6–10 days | None | ✓ ASPCA non-toxic |
| [Hydrangea](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/hydrangea/) | 5–7 days | None | mildly toxic |
| [Chamomile](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/chamomile/) | 5–7 days | Light | — |
| [Astrantia](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/astrantia/) | 7–10 days | None | — |
| [Love-lies-bleeding](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/amaranthus/) | 7–10 days | None | — |
| [Bells of Ireland](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/moluccella/) | 7–10 days | None | — |
| [Bupleurum](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/bupleurum/) | 7–10 days | None | — |
| [Siam tulip (Curcuma)](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/curcuma/) | 7–14 days | None | — |
| [Canterbury bells](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/campanula/) | 5–8 days | None | — |
| [Crocosmia](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/crocosmia/) | 5–8 days | None | — |
| [Iris](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/iris/) | 4–6 days | Light | mildly toxic |
| [Delphinium](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/delphinium/) | 5–8 days | None | mildly toxic |
| [Globe amaranth](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/gomphrena/) | 10–14 days | None | — |
| [Gardenia](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/gardenia/) | 3–5 days | Strong | mildly toxic |
| [Jasmine](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/jasmine/) | 3–5 days | Strong | — |
| [Lavender](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/lavender/) | 7–10 days | Strong | mildly toxic |
| [Zinnia](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/zinnia/) | 5–7 days | None | ✓ ASPCA non-toxic |
| [Dahlia](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/dahlia/) | 4–6 days | None | mildly toxic |
| [Celosia](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/celosia/) | 7–10 days | None | ✓ ASPCA non-toxic |
| [Lotus](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/lotus/) | 3–4 days | Light | — |
| [Water lily](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/waterlily/) | 2–4 days | Light | — |
| [Queen Anne's lace (Ammi)](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/queenannes/) | 5–7 days | None | — |
| [Clematis](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/clematis/) | 4–6 days | None | mildly toxic |
| [Lupin](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/lupin/) | 5–7 days | None | mildly toxic |
| [Salvia](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/salvia/) | 5–8 days | Light | — |
| [Daisy (marguerite)](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/daisy/) | 5–7 days | None | mildly toxic |
| [Cosmos](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/cosmos/) | 5–7 days | None | — |
| [Calendula](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/calendula/) | 5–7 days | Light | — |
| [Marigold](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/marigold/) | 7–10 days | Strong | — |
| [Cornflower](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/cornflower/) | 5–7 days | None | — |
| [China aster](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/aster/) | 7–10 days | None | ✓ ASPCA non-toxic |
| [Trachelium](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/trachelium/) | 7–10 days | None | — |
| [Gladiolus](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/gladiolus/) | 7–10 days | None | mildly toxic |
| [Scabiosa](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/scabiosa/) | 5–7 days | None | — |
| [Agapanthus](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/agapanthus/) | 7–10 days | None | — |
| [Allium](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/allium/) | 10–14 days | Light | mildly toxic |
| [Astilbe](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/astilbe/) | 5–7 days | None | — |
| [Eryngium (sea holly)](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/eryngium/) | 10–14 days | None | — |
| [Kangaroo paw](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/kangaroopaw/) | 10–14 days | None | — |
| [Tuberose](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/tuberose/) | 5–7 days | Strong | — |
| [Solidago (goldenrod)](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/solidago/) | 7–10 days | None | — |
| [Veronica](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/veronica/) | 5–7 days | None | — |
| [Chinese iris](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/irislactea/) | 3–6 days | Light | mildly toxic |
| [Purple loosestrife](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/lythrum/) | 5–7 days | None | — |
| [Obedient plant](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/physostegia/) | 7–10 days | None | — |
| [Hollyhock](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/hollyhock/) | 5–7 days | None | — |
| [Daylily](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/hemerocallis/) | 5–7 days | None | ⚠ toxic to cats |
| [Hardy begonia](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/begonia/) | 3–5 days | None | mildly toxic |
| [Arrowhead (sagittaria)](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/sagittaria/) | 5–7 days | None | — |

For florists

## Turn this guide into a client design

We fill in the brief from this page. No stock yet? Load the sample flowers and see a recipe, quote and preview image in about a minute. New shops get 30 free credits.

Try it as a design — free

## Branches and foliage in season

[Lotus pod](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/lotuspod/) · [Wheat ears](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/wheat/) · [Purple-leaf plum](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/purpleleafplum/) · [False spiraea](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/sorbaria/) · [Hosta leaves](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/hosta/) · [Cattail](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/typha/) · [Sweet flag (acorus)](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/acorus/) · [Mugwort](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/artemisia/) · [Pomegranate](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/pomegranate/) · [Crape myrtle](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/crapemyrtle/) · [Bougainvillea](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/bougainvillea/) · [Powdery thalia](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/thalia/)

## Year-round staples

[Rose](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/rose/) · [Lily](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/lily/) · [Carnation](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/carnation/) · [Gerbera daisy](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/gerbera/) · [Lisianthus](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/lisianthus/) · [Baby's breath](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/gypsophila/) · [Bird of paradise](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/strelitzia/) · [Orchids (cut)](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/orchid/) · [Calla lily](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/calla/) · [Statice](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/statice/) · [Anthurium](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/anthurium/) · [Dendrobium orchid](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/dendrobium/) · [Craspedia (billy buttons)](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/craspedia/) · [Alstroemeria](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/alstroemeria/) · [Heliconia](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/heliconia/) · [Star of Bethlehem (Ornithogalum)](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/ornithogalum/) · [Bouvardia](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/bouvardia/)

## What florists should know

- Short-lived — deliver the same or next day: [Iris](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/iris/), [Gardenia](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/gardenia/), [Jasmine](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/jasmine/), [Dahlia](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/dahlia/), [Lotus](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/lotus/), [Water lily](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/waterlily/), [Clematis](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/clematis/), [Chinese iris](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/irislactea/), [Hardy begonia](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/begonia/)

- Strongly scented — not for hospital visits, condolences or dining tables: [Gardenia](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/gardenia/), [Jasmine](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/jasmine/), [Lavender](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/lavender/), [Marigold](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/marigold/), [Tuberose](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/tuberose/)

## Holidays this season

- [Qixi](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/holidays/qixi/) — Chinese mainland · 1.5–2.5× · 21 days ahead

## FAQ

### What flowers are in season in summer?

Cut flowers: Sunflower, Hydrangea, Chamomile, Astrantia, Love-lies-bleeding, Bells of Ireland, Bupleurum, Siam tulip (Curcuma), Canterbury bells, Crocosmia, Iris, Delphinium, Globe amaranth, Gardenia, Jasmine, Lavender, Zinnia, Dahlia, Celosia, Lotus, Water lily, Queen Anne's lace (Ammi), Clematis, Lupin, Salvia, Daisy (marguerite), Cosmos, Calendula, Marigold, Cornflower, China aster, Trachelium, Gladiolus, Scabiosa, Agapanthus, Allium, Astilbe, Eryngium (sea holly), Kangaroo paw, Tuberose, Solidago (goldenrod), Veronica, Chinese iris, Purple loosestrife, Obedient plant, Hollyhock, Daylily, Hardy begonia, Arrowhead (sagittaria). Branches and foliage: Lotus pod, Wheat ears, Purple-leaf plum, False spiraea, Hosta leaves, Cattail, Sweet flag (acorus), Mugwort, Pomegranate, Crape myrtle, Bougainvillea, Powdery thalia.

### Which summer flowers last longest?

Among this season's cut flowers: Globe amaranth, Allium, Eryngium (sea holly), Kangaroo paw.

### Which summer flowers fade fastest?

Iris, Gardenia, Jasmine, Dahlia, Lotus, Water lily, Clematis, Chinese iris, Hardy begonia usually last only a few days; deliver them the same or next day and avoid making them far ahead.

### Which summer holidays push flower prices up?

Qixi (rose, typically 1.5–2.5×).

Last reviewed: 2026-10-31. Seasons are for the Northern Hemisphere; "in season" means plentiful supply and steady quality — greenhouse and imported stems can be available at other times. Reference values from common trade practice. Real results vary with variety, origin and conditioning.


---

<!-- https://floreboard.com/en/guides/seasonal-flowers/autumn/ -->

# Autumn flowers in season

Cut flowers, branches and foliage in season in autumn (Northern Hemisphere), with vase life, fragrance, pet safety and this season's holiday price surges.

[Spring](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/seasonal-flowers/spring/) · [Summer](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/seasonal-flowers/summer/) **Autumn** [Winter](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/seasonal-flowers/winter/)

## Cut flowers in season

| Flower | Vase life | Fragrance | Pets |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| [Chrysanthemum](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/chrysanthemum/) | 10–14 days | Light | mildly toxic |
| [Love-lies-bleeding](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/amaranthus/) | 7–10 days | None | — |
| [Globe amaranth](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/gomphrena/) | 10–14 days | None | — |
| [Zinnia](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/zinnia/) | 5–7 days | None | ✓ ASPCA non-toxic |
| [Dahlia](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/dahlia/) | 4–6 days | None | mildly toxic |
| [Celosia](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/celosia/) | 7–10 days | None | ✓ ASPCA non-toxic |
| [Cosmos](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/cosmos/) | 5–7 days | None | — |
| [Marigold](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/marigold/) | 7–10 days | Strong | — |
| [China aster](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/aster/) | 7–10 days | None | ✓ ASPCA non-toxic |
| [Gladiolus](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/gladiolus/) | 7–10 days | None | mildly toxic |
| [Solidago (goldenrod)](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/solidago/) | 7–10 days | None | — |
| [Obedient plant](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/physostegia/) | 7–10 days | None | — |
| [Red spider lily](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/lycoris/) | 5–7 days | None | mildly toxic |
| [Hardy begonia](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/begonia/) | 3–5 days | None | mildly toxic |

For florists

## Turn this guide into a client design

We fill in the brief from this page. No stock yet? Load the sample flowers and see a recipe, quote and preview image in about a minute. New shops get 30 free credits.

Try it as a design — free

## Branches and foliage in season

[Maple branches](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/maple/) · [Winterberry](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/redbean/) · [Osmanthus](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/osmanthus/) · [Heavenly bamboo (nandina)](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/nandina/) · [Persimmon branches](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/persimmon/) · [Lotus pod](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/lotuspod/) · [Cotton stems](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/cotton/) · [Ginkgo](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/ginkgo/) · [Amur honeysuckle](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/lonicera/) · [Cattail](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/typha/) · [Pomegranate](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/pomegranate/) · [Firethorn (pyracantha)](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/pyracantha/) · [Buddha’s hand citron](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/buddhahand/) · [Oriental bittersweet](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/celastrus/) · [Bougainvillea](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/bougainvillea/)

## Year-round staples

[Rose](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/rose/) · [Lily](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/lily/) · [Carnation](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/carnation/) · [Gerbera daisy](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/gerbera/) · [Lisianthus](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/lisianthus/) · [Baby's breath](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/gypsophila/) · [Bird of paradise](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/strelitzia/) · [Orchids (cut)](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/orchid/) · [Calla lily](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/calla/) · [Statice](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/statice/) · [Anthurium](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/anthurium/) · [Dendrobium orchid](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/dendrobium/) · [Craspedia (billy buttons)](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/craspedia/) · [Alstroemeria](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/alstroemeria/) · [Heliconia](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/heliconia/) · [Star of Bethlehem (Ornithogalum)](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/ornithogalum/) · [Bouvardia](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/bouvardia/)

## What florists should know

- Short-lived — deliver the same or next day: [Dahlia](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/dahlia/), [Hardy begonia](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/begonia/)

- Strongly scented — not for hospital visits, condolences or dining tables: [Marigold](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/marigold/)

## Holidays this season

- [Teachers' Day](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/holidays/chinese-teachers-day/) — Chinese mainland · 1.2–1.5× · 14 days ahead

## FAQ

### What flowers are in season in autumn?

Cut flowers: Chrysanthemum, Love-lies-bleeding, Globe amaranth, Zinnia, Dahlia, Celosia, Cosmos, Marigold, China aster, Gladiolus, Solidago (goldenrod), Obedient plant, Red spider lily, Hardy begonia. Branches and foliage: Maple branches, Winterberry, Osmanthus, Heavenly bamboo (nandina), Persimmon branches, Lotus pod, Cotton stems, Ginkgo, Amur honeysuckle, Cattail, Pomegranate, Firethorn (pyracantha), Buddha’s hand citron, Oriental bittersweet, Bougainvillea.

### Which autumn flowers last longest?

Among this season's cut flowers: Chrysanthemum, Globe amaranth, Love-lies-bleeding, Celosia.

### Which autumn flowers fade fastest?

Dahlia, Hardy begonia usually last only a few days; deliver them the same or next day and avoid making them far ahead.

### Which autumn holidays push flower prices up?

Teachers' Day (carnation, sunflower, typically 1.2–1.5×).

Last reviewed: 2026-10-31. Seasons are for the Northern Hemisphere; "in season" means plentiful supply and steady quality — greenhouse and imported stems can be available at other times. Reference values from common trade practice. Real results vary with variety, origin and conditioning.


---

<!-- https://floreboard.com/en/guides/seasonal-flowers/winter/ -->

# Winter flowers in season

Cut flowers, branches and foliage in season in winter (Northern Hemisphere), with vase life, fragrance, pet safety and this season's holiday price surges.

[Spring](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/seasonal-flowers/spring/) · [Summer](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/seasonal-flowers/summer/) · [Autumn](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/seasonal-flowers/autumn/) **Winter**

## Cut flowers in season

| Flower | Vase life | Fragrance | Pets |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| [Tulip](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/tulip/) | 4–7 days | None | mildly toxic |
| [Narcissus (daffodil)](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/narcissus/) | 4–7 days | Strong | mildly toxic |
| [Amaryllis (Hippeastrum)](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/amaryllis/) | 7–14 days | None | mildly toxic |
| [Camellia](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/camellia/) | 3–5 days | None | ✓ ASPCA non-toxic |
| [Anemone](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/anemone/) | 3–6 days | None | mildly toxic |
| [Freesia](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/freesia/) | 5–8 days | Strong | — |
| [Hyacinth](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/hyacinth/) | 5–7 days | Strong | mildly toxic |
| [Stock (Matthiola)](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/stock/) | 7–10 days | Strong | — |
| [Protea](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/protea/) | 10–14 days | None | — |
| [Waxflower](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/waxflower/) | 10–14 days | Light | — |
| [Ranunculus](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/ranunculus/) | 5–8 days | None | mildly toxic |
| [Hellebore](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/hellebore/) | 7–10 days | None | mildly toxic |
| [Pincushion protea](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/leucospermum/) | 10–14 days | None | — |

For florists

## Turn this guide into a client design

We fill in the brief from this page. No stock yet? Load the sample flowers and see a recipe, quote and preview image in about a minute. New shops get 30 free credits.

Try it as a design — free

## Branches and foliage in season

[Plum blossom](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/plum/) · [Wintersweet](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/wintersweet/) · [Silver wattle (mimosa)](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/acacia/) · [Winterberry](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/redbean/) · [Pussy willow](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/pussywillow/) · [Red-twig dogwood](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/dogwood/) · [Heavenly bamboo (nandina)](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/nandina/) · [Holly](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/holly/) · [Amur honeysuckle](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/lonicera/) · [Firethorn (pyracantha)](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/pyracantha/) · [Buddha’s hand citron](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/buddhahand/) · [Winter jasmine](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/winterjasmine/) · [Winter daphne](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/daphne/)

## Year-round staples

[Rose](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/rose/) · [Lily](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/lily/) · [Carnation](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/carnation/) · [Gerbera daisy](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/gerbera/) · [Lisianthus](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/lisianthus/) · [Baby's breath](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/gypsophila/) · [Bird of paradise](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/strelitzia/) · [Orchids (cut)](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/orchid/) · [Calla lily](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/calla/) · [Statice](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/statice/) · [Anthurium](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/anthurium/) · [Dendrobium orchid](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/dendrobium/) · [Craspedia (billy buttons)](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/craspedia/) · [Alstroemeria](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/alstroemeria/) · [Heliconia](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/heliconia/) · [Star of Bethlehem (Ornithogalum)](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/ornithogalum/) · [Bouvardia](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/bouvardia/)

## What florists should know

- Short-lived — deliver the same or next day: [Tulip](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/tulip/), [Narcissus (daffodil)](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/narcissus/), [Camellia](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/camellia/), [Anemone](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/anemone/)

- Strongly scented — not for hospital visits, condolences or dining tables: [Narcissus (daffodil)](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/narcissus/), [Freesia](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/freesia/), [Hyacinth](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/hyacinth/), [Stock (Matthiola)](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/stock/)

## Holidays this season

- [Valentine's Day](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/holidays/valentines-day/) — Worldwide · 2–3× · 21 days ahead
- [Chinese New Year](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/holidays/chinese-new-year/) — Chinese mainland · 1.5–3× · 30 days ahead
- [Christmas](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/holidays/christmas/) — Worldwide · 1.2–1.6× · 30 days ahead

## FAQ

### What flowers are in season in winter?

Cut flowers: Tulip, Narcissus (daffodil), Amaryllis (Hippeastrum), Camellia, Anemone, Freesia, Hyacinth, Stock (Matthiola), Protea, Waxflower, Ranunculus, Hellebore, Pincushion protea. Branches and foliage: Plum blossom, Wintersweet, Silver wattle (mimosa), Winterberry, Pussy willow, Red-twig dogwood, Heavenly bamboo (nandina), Holly, Amur honeysuckle, Firethorn (pyracantha), Buddha’s hand citron, Winter jasmine, Winter daphne.

### Which winter flowers last longest?

Among this season's cut flowers: Protea, Waxflower, Pincushion protea, Amaryllis (Hippeastrum).

### Which winter flowers fade fastest?

Tulip, Narcissus (daffodil), Camellia, Anemone usually last only a few days; deliver them the same or next day and avoid making them far ahead.

### Which winter holidays push flower prices up?

Valentine's Day (rose, typically 2–3×); Chinese New Year (orchids (cut), pussy willow, peach blossom, lily, bamboo, typically 1.5–3×); Christmas (pine, holly, heavenly bamboo (nandina), typically 1.2–1.6×).

Last reviewed: 2026-10-31. Seasons are for the Northern Hemisphere; "in season" means plentiful supply and steady quality — greenhouse and imported stems can be available at other times. Reference values from common trade practice. Real results vary with variety, origin and conditioning.


---

<!-- https://floreboard.com/en/guides/holidays/valentines-day/ -->

# Valentine's Day flowers: a florist's stocking guide

Before Valentine's Day (Worldwide), rose wholesale prices typically run 2–3× normal; stock up about 21 days ahead. Dates and order-by dates for 2026–2028.

- **Market:** Worldwide

- **Flowers affected:** [Rose](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/rose/)

- **Typical price:** 2–3× normal wholesale

- **Stock up:** 21 days ahead

## Dates and order-by dates

| Year | Date | Start stocking by |
| --- | --- | --- |
| 2026 | 2026-02-14 | 2026-01-24 |
| 2027 | 2027-02-14 | 2027-01-24 |
| 2028 | 2028-02-14 | 2028-01-24 |

For florists

## Turn this guide into a client design

We fill in the brief from this page. No stock yet? Load the sample flowers and see a recipe, quote and preview image in about a minute. New shops get 30 free credits.

Try it as a design — free

## How people buy for it

Red roses carry the day: a dozen in the West, and in China bouquets counted for their meaning, such as 11 or 99 stems. In Japan and Korea, 14 February is traditionally the day women give chocolate, and the return gift comes on White Day a month later. Because one flower takes nearly all the demand, it is also the holiday where offering an alternative protects your margin most.

## The flowers that surge

| Flower | Role | Vase life | In season | Fragrance | Pets |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| [Rose](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/rose/) | Focal flower | 5–7 days | Year-round | Light | ✓ ASPCA non-toxic |

## What the surge does to material cost

If the affected flowers make up the share of a design's material cost shown below, a 2–3× surge raises the whole design's material cost by:

| Affected flowers as share of material cost | At 2× | At 3× |
| --- | --- | --- |
| 40% | +40% | +80% |
| 60% | +60% | +120% |
| 80% | +80% | +160% |

[How florists price arrangements: cost, markup and margin](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/florist-pricing-and-margin/)

## Alternatives that are not priced up

Flowers with the same role that are available at this time of year and not on this holiday's surge list — the basis for a "holiday-proof" option:

| Instead of | Consider |
| --- | --- |
| [Rose](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/rose/) | [Gerbera daisy](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/gerbera/), [Carnation](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/carnation/), [Lily](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/lily/), [Calla lily](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/calla/) |

## What florists should know

- Rose lasts about 5–7 days: lock in prices early, but do not make up arrangements too far ahead.
- For Chinese, Japanese and Korean clients avoid 4 stems (it sounds like "death"); for Japanese clients also avoid 9.

## FAQ

### When is Valentine's Day in 2026, 2027, 2028?

2026: 2026-02-14; 2027: 2027-02-14; 2028: 2028-02-14 (Worldwide).

### Which flowers get more expensive before Valentine's Day, and by how much?

Rose wholesale prices typically run 2–3× normal.

### How far ahead should florists stock up for Valentine's Day?

About 21 days ahead — around 2026-01-24 for 2026 — and quote at holiday prices.

### What can florists offer instead of the flowers that surge before Valentine's Day?

Instead of rose: gerbera daisy, carnation, lily, calla lily.

## Other holidays for the same flowers

[Women's Day](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/holidays/womens-day/) · [White Day](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/holidays/white-day/) · [Mother's Day](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/holidays/mothers-day/) · [520 (May 20)](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/holidays/520/) · [Qixi](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/holidays/qixi/)

[Holiday flower price calendar](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/holiday-flower-prices/)

Last reviewed: 2026-10-31. Surges are typical wholesale ranges for stocking and quoting; local markets vary.


---

<!-- https://floreboard.com/en/guides/holidays/chinese-new-year/ -->

# Chinese New Year flowers: a florist's stocking guide

Before Chinese New Year (Chinese mainland), orchids (cut), pussy willow, peach blossom, lily, bamboo wholesale prices typically run 1.5–3× normal; stock up about 30 days ahead. Dates and order-by dates for 2026–2028.

- **Market:** Chinese mainland

- **Flowers affected:** [Orchids (cut)](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/orchid/), [Pussy willow](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/pussywillow/), [Peach blossom](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/peach/), [Lily](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/lily/), [Bamboo](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/bamboo/)

- **Typical price:** 1.5–3× normal wholesale

- **Stock up:** 30 days ahead

## Dates and order-by dates

| Year | Date | Start stocking by |
| --- | --- | --- |
| 2026 | 2026-02-17 | 2026-01-18 |
| 2027 | 2027-02-06 | 2027-01-07 |
| 2028 | 2028-01-26 | 2027-12-27 |

For florists

## Turn this guide into a client design

We fill in the brief from this page. No stock yet? Load the sample flowers and see a recipe, quote and preview image in about a minute. New shops get 30 free credits.

Try it as a design — free

## How people buy for it

New Year flowers are bought in the two weeks before New Year's Eve: potted and cut orchids, pussy willow (whose name sounds like "silver stays"), peach blossom in the south, bamboo and narcissus. Red and gold dominate, and white on its own is avoided. Wholesale markets close over the holiday, so the selling window ends on New Year's Eve.

## The flowers that surge

| Flower | Role | Vase life | In season | Fragrance | Pets |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| [Orchids (cut)](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/orchid/) | Focal flower | 10–21 days | Year-round | Light | ✓ ASPCA non-toxic |
| [Pussy willow](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/pussywillow/) | Branch | 14–30 days | Winter, Spring | None | — |
| [Peach blossom](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/peach/) | Branch | 5–10 days | Spring | Light | — |
| [Lily](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/lily/) | Focal flower | 7–10 days | Year-round | Strong | ⚠ toxic to cats |
| [Bamboo](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/bamboo/) | Branch | 14–30 days | Year-round | None | — |

## What the surge does to material cost

If the affected flowers make up the share of a design's material cost shown below, a 1.5–3× surge raises the whole design's material cost by:

| Affected flowers as share of material cost | At 1.5× | At 3× |
| --- | --- | --- |
| 40% | +20% | +80% |
| 60% | +30% | +120% |
| 80% | +40% | +160% |

[How florists price arrangements: cost, markup and margin](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/florist-pricing-and-margin/)

## Alternatives that are not priced up

Flowers with the same role that are available at this time of year and not on this holiday's surge list — the basis for a "holiday-proof" option:

| Instead of | Consider |
| --- | --- |
| [Orchids (cut)](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/orchid/) | [Carnation](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/carnation/), [Lisianthus](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/lisianthus/), [Heliconia](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/heliconia/), [Calla lily](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/calla/) |
| [Pussy willow](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/pussywillow/) | [Curly willow](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/curlywillow/), [Pine](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/pine/), [Juniper & arborvitae](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/juniper/), [Photinia](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/photinia/) |
| [Peach blossom](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/peach/) | [Winter daphne](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/daphne/), [Silver wattle (mimosa)](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/acacia/) |
| [Lily](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/lily/) | [Gerbera daisy](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/gerbera/), [Calla lily](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/calla/), [Rose](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/rose/), [Lisianthus](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/lisianthus/) |
| [Bamboo](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/bamboo/) | [Curly willow](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/curlywillow/), [Pine](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/pine/), [Juniper & arborvitae](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/juniper/), [Photinia](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/photinia/) |

## What florists should know

- Peach blossom lasts about 5–10 days: lock in prices early, but do not make up arrangements too far ahead.
- Lily is highly toxic to cats — swap it for homes with cats.
- Lily pollen stains clothing — remove the anthers before delivery.
- For Chinese, Japanese and Korean clients avoid 4 stems (it sounds like "death"); for Japanese clients also avoid 9.

## FAQ

### When is Chinese New Year in 2026, 2027, 2028?

2026: 2026-02-17; 2027: 2027-02-06; 2028: 2028-01-26 (Chinese mainland).

### Which flowers get more expensive before Chinese New Year, and by how much?

Orchids (cut), Pussy willow, Peach blossom, Lily, Bamboo wholesale prices typically run 1.5–3× normal.

### How far ahead should florists stock up for Chinese New Year?

About 30 days ahead — around 2026-01-18 for 2026 — and quote at holiday prices.

### What can florists offer instead of the flowers that surge before Chinese New Year?

Instead of orchids (cut): carnation, lisianthus, heliconia, calla lily; Instead of pussy willow: curly willow, pine, juniper & arborvitae, photinia; Instead of peach blossom: winter daphne, silver wattle (mimosa); Instead of lily: gerbera daisy, calla lily, rose, lisianthus; Instead of bamboo: curly willow, pine, juniper & arborvitae, photinia.

## Other holidays for the same flowers

[Women's Day](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/holidays/womens-day/) · [Qingming](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/holidays/qingming/) · [Mother's Day](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/holidays/mothers-day/)

[Holiday flower price calendar](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/holiday-flower-prices/)

Last reviewed: 2026-10-31. Surges are typical wholesale ranges for stocking and quoting; local markets vary.


---

<!-- https://floreboard.com/en/guides/holidays/womens-day/ -->

# Women's Day flowers: a florist's stocking guide

Before Women's Day (Chinese mainland), rose, carnation, lily wholesale prices typically run 1.2–1.5× normal; stock up about 14 days ahead. Dates and order-by dates for 2026–2028.

- **Market:** Chinese mainland

- **Flowers affected:** [Rose](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/rose/), [Carnation](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/carnation/), [Lily](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/lily/)

- **Typical price:** 1.2–1.5× normal wholesale

- **Stock up:** 14 days ahead

## Dates and order-by dates

| Year | Date | Start stocking by |
| --- | --- | --- |
| 2026 | 2026-03-08 | 2026-02-22 |
| 2027 | 2027-03-08 | 2027-02-22 |
| 2028 | 2028-03-08 | 2028-02-23 |

For florists

## Turn this guide into a client design

We fill in the brief from this page. No stock yet? Load the sample flowers and see a recipe, quote and preview image in about a minute. New shops get 30 free credits.

Try it as a design — free

## How people buy for it

8 March is a gift-giving day in China, as it is in Russia and much of Eastern Europe: employers, partners and children give flowers. Orders skew to many small bouquets — roses, carnations and tulips — rather than a few large pieces.

## The flowers that surge

| Flower | Role | Vase life | In season | Fragrance | Pets |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| [Rose](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/rose/) | Focal flower | 5–7 days | Year-round | Light | ✓ ASPCA non-toxic |
| [Carnation](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/carnation/) | Focal flower | 10–14 days | Year-round | Light | mildly toxic |
| [Lily](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/lily/) | Focal flower | 7–10 days | Year-round | Strong | ⚠ toxic to cats |

## What the surge does to material cost

If the affected flowers make up the share of a design's material cost shown below, a 1.2–1.5× surge raises the whole design's material cost by:

| Affected flowers as share of material cost | At 1.2× | At 1.5× |
| --- | --- | --- |
| 40% | +8% | +20% |
| 60% | +12% | +30% |
| 80% | +16% | +40% |

[How florists price arrangements: cost, markup and margin](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/florist-pricing-and-margin/)

## Alternatives that are not priced up

Flowers with the same role that are available at this time of year and not on this holiday's surge list — the basis for a "holiday-proof" option:

| Instead of | Consider |
| --- | --- |
| [Rose](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/rose/) | [Gerbera daisy](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/gerbera/), [Calla lily](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/calla/), [Lisianthus](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/lisianthus/), [Orchids (cut)](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/orchid/) |
| [Carnation](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/carnation/) | [Orchids (cut)](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/orchid/), [Heliconia](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/heliconia/), [Bird of paradise](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/strelitzia/), [Calla lily](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/calla/) |
| [Lily](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/lily/) | [Gerbera daisy](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/gerbera/), [Calla lily](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/calla/), [Lisianthus](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/lisianthus/), [Heliconia](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/heliconia/) |

## What florists should know

- Rose lasts about 5–7 days: lock in prices early, but do not make up arrangements too far ahead.
- Lily is highly toxic to cats — swap it for homes with cats.
- Lily pollen stains clothing — remove the anthers before delivery.
- For Chinese, Japanese and Korean clients avoid 4 stems (it sounds like "death"); for Japanese clients also avoid 9.

## FAQ

### When is Women's Day in 2026, 2027, 2028?

2026: 2026-03-08; 2027: 2027-03-08; 2028: 2028-03-08 (Chinese mainland).

### Which flowers get more expensive before Women's Day, and by how much?

Rose, Carnation, Lily wholesale prices typically run 1.2–1.5× normal.

### How far ahead should florists stock up for Women's Day?

About 14 days ahead — around 2026-02-22 for 2026 — and quote at holiday prices.

### What can florists offer instead of the flowers that surge before Women's Day?

Instead of rose: gerbera daisy, calla lily, lisianthus, orchids (cut); Instead of carnation: orchids (cut), heliconia, bird of paradise, calla lily; Instead of lily: gerbera daisy, calla lily, lisianthus, heliconia.

## Other holidays for the same flowers

[Valentine's Day](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/holidays/valentines-day/) · [Chinese New Year](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/holidays/chinese-new-year/) · [White Day](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/holidays/white-day/) · [Qingming](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/holidays/qingming/) · [Mother's Day](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/holidays/mothers-day/) · [Parents' Day](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/holidays/korean-parents-day/) · [520 (May 20)](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/holidays/520/) · [Qixi](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/holidays/qixi/) · [Teachers' Day](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/holidays/chinese-teachers-day/)

[Holiday flower price calendar](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/holiday-flower-prices/)

Last reviewed: 2026-10-31. Surges are typical wholesale ranges for stocking and quoting; local markets vary.


---

<!-- https://floreboard.com/en/guides/holidays/white-day/ -->

# White Day flowers: a florist's stocking guide

Before White Day (Japan, Korea), rose wholesale prices typically run 1.2–1.5× normal; stock up about 14 days ahead. Dates and order-by dates for 2026–2028.

- **Market:** Japan, Korea

- **Flowers affected:** [Rose](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/rose/)

- **Typical price:** 1.2–1.5× normal wholesale

- **Stock up:** 14 days ahead

## Dates and order-by dates

| Year | Date | Start stocking by |
| --- | --- | --- |
| 2026 | 2026-03-14 | 2026-02-28 |
| 2027 | 2027-03-14 | 2027-02-28 |
| 2028 | 2028-03-14 | 2028-02-29 |

For florists

## Turn this guide into a client design

We fill in the brief from this page. No stock yet? Load the sample flowers and see a recipe, quote and preview image in about a minute. New shops get 30 free credits.

Try it as a design — free

## How people buy for it

On 14 March in Japan and Korea, men return the gifts they received on Valentine's Day — traditionally sweets, increasingly flowers. It is smaller than Valentine's Day, with a correspondingly smaller rise in rose prices.

## The flowers that surge

| Flower | Role | Vase life | In season | Fragrance | Pets |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| [Rose](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/rose/) | Focal flower | 5–7 days | Year-round | Light | ✓ ASPCA non-toxic |

## What the surge does to material cost

If the affected flowers make up the share of a design's material cost shown below, a 1.2–1.5× surge raises the whole design's material cost by:

| Affected flowers as share of material cost | At 1.2× | At 1.5× |
| --- | --- | --- |
| 40% | +8% | +20% |
| 60% | +12% | +30% |
| 80% | +16% | +40% |

[How florists price arrangements: cost, markup and margin](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/florist-pricing-and-margin/)

## Alternatives that are not priced up

Flowers with the same role that are available at this time of year and not on this holiday's surge list — the basis for a "holiday-proof" option:

| Instead of | Consider |
| --- | --- |
| [Rose](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/rose/) | [Gerbera daisy](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/gerbera/), [Carnation](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/carnation/), [Lily](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/lily/), [Calla lily](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/calla/) |

## What florists should know

- Rose lasts about 5–7 days: lock in prices early, but do not make up arrangements too far ahead.
- For Chinese, Japanese and Korean clients avoid 4 stems (it sounds like "death"); for Japanese clients also avoid 9.

## FAQ

### When is White Day in 2026, 2027, 2028?

2026: 2026-03-14; 2027: 2027-03-14; 2028: 2028-03-14 (Japan, Korea).

### Which flowers get more expensive before White Day, and by how much?

Rose wholesale prices typically run 1.2–1.5× normal.

### How far ahead should florists stock up for White Day?

About 14 days ahead — around 2026-02-28 for 2026 — and quote at holiday prices.

### What can florists offer instead of the flowers that surge before White Day?

Instead of rose: gerbera daisy, carnation, lily, calla lily.

## Other holidays for the same flowers

[Valentine's Day](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/holidays/valentines-day/) · [Women's Day](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/holidays/womens-day/) · [Mother's Day](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/holidays/mothers-day/) · [520 (May 20)](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/holidays/520/) · [Qixi](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/holidays/qixi/)

[Holiday flower price calendar](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/holiday-flower-prices/)

Last reviewed: 2026-10-31. Surges are typical wholesale ranges for stocking and quoting; local markets vary.


---

<!-- https://floreboard.com/en/guides/holidays/qingming/ -->

# Qingming flowers: a florist's stocking guide

Before Qingming (Chinese mainland), chrysanthemum, lily wholesale prices typically run 1.5–2× normal; stock up about 14 days ahead. Dates and order-by dates for 2026–2028.

- **Market:** Chinese mainland

- **Flowers affected:** [Chrysanthemum](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/chrysanthemum/), [Lily](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/lily/)

- **Typical price:** 1.5–2× normal wholesale

- **Stock up:** 14 days ahead

## Dates and order-by dates

| Year | Date | Start stocking by |
| --- | --- | --- |
| 2026 | 2026-04-05 | 2026-03-22 |
| 2027 | 2027-04-05 | 2027-03-22 |
| 2028 | 2028-04-04 | 2028-03-21 |

For florists

## Turn this guide into a client design

We fill in the brief from this page. No stock yet? Load the sample flowers and see a recipe, quote and preview image in about a minute. New shops get 30 free credits.

Try it as a design — free

## How people buy for it

Tomb-sweeping day. Families visit graves with white and yellow chrysanthemums, white lilies and carnations in simple bunches and small baskets. Demand peaks over the weekend before and on the day itself.

## The flowers that surge

| Flower | Role | Vase life | In season | Fragrance | Pets |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| [Chrysanthemum](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/chrysanthemum/) | Focal flower | 10–14 days | Autumn | Light | mildly toxic |
| [Lily](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/lily/) | Focal flower | 7–10 days | Year-round | Strong | ⚠ toxic to cats |

## What the surge does to material cost

If the affected flowers make up the share of a design's material cost shown below, a 1.5–2× surge raises the whole design's material cost by:

| Affected flowers as share of material cost | At 1.5× | At 2× |
| --- | --- | --- |
| 40% | +20% | +40% |
| 60% | +30% | +60% |
| 80% | +40% | +80% |

[How florists price arrangements: cost, markup and margin](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/florist-pricing-and-margin/)

## Alternatives that are not priced up

Flowers with the same role that are available at this time of year and not on this holiday's surge list — the basis for a "holiday-proof" option:

| Instead of | Consider |
| --- | --- |
| [Chrysanthemum](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/chrysanthemum/) | [Carnation](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/carnation/), [Orchids (cut)](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/orchid/), [Heliconia](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/heliconia/), [Rose](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/rose/) |
| [Lily](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/lily/) | [Gerbera daisy](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/gerbera/), [Calla lily](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/calla/), [Rose](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/rose/), [Lisianthus](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/lisianthus/) |

## What florists should know

- Lily is highly toxic to cats — swap it for homes with cats.
- Lily pollen stains clothing — remove the anthers before delivery.
- Qingming is for tomb-sweeping: white and yellow chrysanthemums and white lilies in muted colours; avoid celebratory red.

## FAQ

### When is Qingming in 2026, 2027, 2028?

2026: 2026-04-05; 2027: 2027-04-05; 2028: 2028-04-04 (Chinese mainland).

### Which flowers get more expensive before Qingming, and by how much?

Chrysanthemum, Lily wholesale prices typically run 1.5–2× normal.

### How far ahead should florists stock up for Qingming?

About 14 days ahead — around 2026-03-22 for 2026 — and quote at holiday prices.

### What can florists offer instead of the flowers that surge before Qingming?

Instead of chrysanthemum: carnation, orchids (cut), heliconia, rose; Instead of lily: gerbera daisy, calla lily, rose, lisianthus.

## Other holidays for the same flowers

[Chinese New Year](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/holidays/chinese-new-year/) · [Women's Day](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/holidays/womens-day/) · [Mother's Day](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/holidays/mothers-day/)

[Holiday flower price calendar](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/holiday-flower-prices/)

Last reviewed: 2026-10-31. Surges are typical wholesale ranges for stocking and quoting; local markets vary.


---

<!-- https://floreboard.com/en/guides/holidays/mothers-day/ -->

# Mother's Day flowers: a florist's stocking guide

Before Mother's Day (Chinese mainland, United States, Japan), carnation, lily, rose wholesale prices typically run 1.5–2.5× normal; stock up about 21 days ahead. Dates and order-by dates for 2026–2028.

- **Market:** Chinese mainland, United States, Japan

- **Flowers affected:** [Carnation](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/carnation/), [Lily](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/lily/), [Rose](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/rose/)

- **Typical price:** 1.5–2.5× normal wholesale

- **Stock up:** 21 days ahead

## Dates and order-by dates

| Year | Date | Start stocking by |
| --- | --- | --- |
| 2026 | 2026-05-10 | 2026-04-19 |
| 2027 | 2027-05-09 | 2027-04-18 |
| 2028 | 2028-05-14 | 2028-04-23 |

For florists

## Turn this guide into a client design

We fill in the brief from this page. No stock yet? Load the sample flowers and see a recipe, quote and preview image in about a minute. New shops get 30 free credits.

Try it as a design — free

## How people buy for it

The second Sunday of May in the United States, China, Japan and many other countries (the UK's Mothering Sunday falls in March instead). Carnations are the emblem: pink and red for mothers who are living, while white traditionally honours a mother who has died. Roses, lilies and hydrangeas fill out mixed bouquets.

## The flowers that surge

| Flower | Role | Vase life | In season | Fragrance | Pets |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| [Carnation](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/carnation/) | Focal flower | 10–14 days | Year-round | Light | mildly toxic |
| [Lily](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/lily/) | Focal flower | 7–10 days | Year-round | Strong | ⚠ toxic to cats |
| [Rose](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/rose/) | Focal flower | 5–7 days | Year-round | Light | ✓ ASPCA non-toxic |

## What the surge does to material cost

If the affected flowers make up the share of a design's material cost shown below, a 1.5–2.5× surge raises the whole design's material cost by:

| Affected flowers as share of material cost | At 1.5× | At 2.5× |
| --- | --- | --- |
| 40% | +20% | +60% |
| 60% | +30% | +90% |
| 80% | +40% | +120% |

[How florists price arrangements: cost, markup and margin](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/florist-pricing-and-margin/)

## Alternatives that are not priced up

Flowers with the same role that are available at this time of year and not on this holiday's surge list — the basis for a "holiday-proof" option:

| Instead of | Consider |
| --- | --- |
| [Carnation](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/carnation/) | [Orchids (cut)](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/orchid/), [Heliconia](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/heliconia/), [Bird of paradise](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/strelitzia/), [Calla lily](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/calla/) |
| [Lily](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/lily/) | [Gerbera daisy](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/gerbera/), [Calla lily](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/calla/), [Lisianthus](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/lisianthus/), [Heliconia](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/heliconia/) |
| [Rose](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/rose/) | [Gerbera daisy](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/gerbera/), [Calla lily](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/calla/), [Lisianthus](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/lisianthus/), [Orchids (cut)](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/orchid/) |

## What florists should know

- Lily is highly toxic to cats — swap it for homes with cats.
- Lily pollen stains clothing — remove the anthers before delivery.
- Rose lasts about 5–7 days: lock in prices early, but do not make up arrangements too far ahead.
- For Chinese, Japanese and Korean clients avoid 4 stems (it sounds like "death"); for Japanese clients also avoid 9.

## FAQ

### When is Mother's Day in 2026, 2027, 2028?

2026: 2026-05-10; 2027: 2027-05-09; 2028: 2028-05-14 (Chinese mainland, United States, Japan).

### Which flowers get more expensive before Mother's Day, and by how much?

Carnation, Lily, Rose wholesale prices typically run 1.5–2.5× normal.

### How far ahead should florists stock up for Mother's Day?

About 21 days ahead — around 2026-04-19 for 2026 — and quote at holiday prices.

### What can florists offer instead of the flowers that surge before Mother's Day?

Instead of carnation: orchids (cut), heliconia, bird of paradise, calla lily; Instead of lily: gerbera daisy, calla lily, lisianthus, heliconia; Instead of rose: gerbera daisy, calla lily, lisianthus, orchids (cut).

## Other holidays for the same flowers

[Valentine's Day](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/holidays/valentines-day/) · [Chinese New Year](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/holidays/chinese-new-year/) · [Women's Day](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/holidays/womens-day/) · [White Day](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/holidays/white-day/) · [Qingming](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/holidays/qingming/) · [Parents' Day](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/holidays/korean-parents-day/) · [520 (May 20)](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/holidays/520/) · [Qixi](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/holidays/qixi/) · [Teachers' Day](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/holidays/chinese-teachers-day/)

[Holiday flower price calendar](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/holiday-flower-prices/)

Last reviewed: 2026-10-31. Surges are typical wholesale ranges for stocking and quoting; local markets vary.


---

<!-- https://floreboard.com/en/guides/holidays/korean-parents-day/ -->

# Parents' Day flowers: a florist's stocking guide

Before Parents' Day (Korea), carnation wholesale prices typically run 1.5–2.5× normal; stock up about 21 days ahead. Dates and order-by dates for 2026–2028.

- **Market:** Korea

- **Flowers affected:** [Carnation](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/carnation/)

- **Typical price:** 1.5–2.5× normal wholesale

- **Stock up:** 21 days ahead

## Dates and order-by dates

| Year | Date | Start stocking by |
| --- | --- | --- |
| 2026 | 2026-05-08 | 2026-04-17 |
| 2027 | 2027-05-08 | 2027-04-17 |
| 2028 | 2028-05-08 | 2028-04-17 |

For florists

## Turn this guide into a client design

We fill in the brief from this page. No stock yet? Load the sample flowers and see a recipe, quote and preview image in about a minute. New shops get 30 free credits.

Try it as a design — free

## How people buy for it

On 8 May in Korea, children pin a red carnation to their parents' chests or give carnation baskets and corsages. Demand is almost entirely carnations, in red and pink.

## The flowers that surge

| Flower | Role | Vase life | In season | Fragrance | Pets |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| [Carnation](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/carnation/) | Focal flower | 10–14 days | Year-round | Light | mildly toxic |

## What the surge does to material cost

If the affected flowers make up the share of a design's material cost shown below, a 1.5–2.5× surge raises the whole design's material cost by:

| Affected flowers as share of material cost | At 1.5× | At 2.5× |
| --- | --- | --- |
| 40% | +20% | +60% |
| 60% | +30% | +90% |
| 80% | +40% | +120% |

[How florists price arrangements: cost, markup and margin](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/florist-pricing-and-margin/)

## Alternatives that are not priced up

Flowers with the same role that are available at this time of year and not on this holiday's surge list — the basis for a "holiday-proof" option:

| Instead of | Consider |
| --- | --- |
| [Carnation](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/carnation/) | [Orchids (cut)](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/orchid/), [Heliconia](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/heliconia/), [Rose](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/rose/), [Bird of paradise](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/strelitzia/) |

## What florists should know

- For Chinese, Japanese and Korean clients avoid 4 stems (it sounds like "death"); for Japanese clients also avoid 9.

## FAQ

### When is Parents' Day in 2026, 2027, 2028?

2026: 2026-05-08; 2027: 2027-05-08; 2028: 2028-05-08 (Korea).

### Which flowers get more expensive before Parents' Day, and by how much?

Carnation wholesale prices typically run 1.5–2.5× normal.

### How far ahead should florists stock up for Parents' Day?

About 21 days ahead — around 2026-04-17 for 2026 — and quote at holiday prices.

### What can florists offer instead of the flowers that surge before Parents' Day?

Instead of carnation: orchids (cut), heliconia, rose, bird of paradise.

## Other holidays for the same flowers

[Women's Day](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/holidays/womens-day/) · [Mother's Day](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/holidays/mothers-day/) · [Teachers' Day](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/holidays/chinese-teachers-day/)

[Holiday flower price calendar](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/holiday-flower-prices/)

Last reviewed: 2026-10-31. Surges are typical wholesale ranges for stocking and quoting; local markets vary.


---

<!-- https://floreboard.com/en/guides/holidays/520/ -->

# 520 (May 20) flowers: a florist's stocking guide

Before 520 (May 20) (Chinese mainland), rose wholesale prices typically run 1.5–2× normal; stock up about 14 days ahead. Dates and order-by dates for 2026–2028.

- **Market:** Chinese mainland

- **Flowers affected:** [Rose](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/rose/)

- **Typical price:** 1.5–2× normal wholesale

- **Stock up:** 14 days ahead

## Dates and order-by dates

| Year | Date | Start stocking by |
| --- | --- | --- |
| 2026 | 2026-05-20 | 2026-05-06 |
| 2027 | 2027-05-20 | 2027-05-06 |
| 2028 | 2028-05-20 | 2028-05-06 |

For florists

## Turn this guide into a client design

We fill in the brief from this page. No stock yet? Load the sample flowers and see a recipe, quote and preview image in about a minute. New shops get 30 free credits.

Try it as a design — free

## How people buy for it

"520" sounds like "I love you" in Mandarin, which has turned 20 May into an internet-born Valentine's Day in China; the 21st extends it. Roses in meaningful numbers dominate, as they do at Qixi and on 14 February.

## The flowers that surge

| Flower | Role | Vase life | In season | Fragrance | Pets |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| [Rose](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/rose/) | Focal flower | 5–7 days | Year-round | Light | ✓ ASPCA non-toxic |

## What the surge does to material cost

If the affected flowers make up the share of a design's material cost shown below, a 1.5–2× surge raises the whole design's material cost by:

| Affected flowers as share of material cost | At 1.5× | At 2× |
| --- | --- | --- |
| 40% | +20% | +40% |
| 60% | +30% | +60% |
| 80% | +40% | +80% |

[How florists price arrangements: cost, markup and margin](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/florist-pricing-and-margin/)

## Alternatives that are not priced up

Flowers with the same role that are available at this time of year and not on this holiday's surge list — the basis for a "holiday-proof" option:

| Instead of | Consider |
| --- | --- |
| [Rose](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/rose/) | [Gerbera daisy](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/gerbera/), [Carnation](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/carnation/), [Lily](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/lily/), [Calla lily](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/calla/) |

## What florists should know

- Rose lasts about 5–7 days: lock in prices early, but do not make up arrangements too far ahead.
- For Chinese, Japanese and Korean clients avoid 4 stems (it sounds like "death"); for Japanese clients also avoid 9.

## FAQ

### When is 520 (May 20) in 2026, 2027, 2028?

2026: 2026-05-20; 2027: 2027-05-20; 2028: 2028-05-20 (Chinese mainland).

### Which flowers get more expensive before 520 (May 20), and by how much?

Rose wholesale prices typically run 1.5–2× normal.

### How far ahead should florists stock up for 520 (May 20)?

About 14 days ahead — around 2026-05-06 for 2026 — and quote at holiday prices.

### What can florists offer instead of the flowers that surge before 520 (May 20)?

Instead of rose: gerbera daisy, carnation, lily, calla lily.

## Other holidays for the same flowers

[Valentine's Day](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/holidays/valentines-day/) · [Women's Day](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/holidays/womens-day/) · [White Day](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/holidays/white-day/) · [Mother's Day](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/holidays/mothers-day/) · [Qixi](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/holidays/qixi/)

[Holiday flower price calendar](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/holiday-flower-prices/)

Last reviewed: 2026-10-31. Surges are typical wholesale ranges for stocking and quoting; local markets vary.


---

<!-- https://floreboard.com/en/guides/holidays/qixi/ -->

# Qixi flowers: a florist's stocking guide

Before Qixi (Chinese mainland), rose wholesale prices typically run 1.5–2.5× normal; stock up about 21 days ahead. Dates and order-by dates for 2026–2028.

- **Market:** Chinese mainland

- **Flowers affected:** [Rose](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/rose/)

- **Typical price:** 1.5–2.5× normal wholesale

- **Stock up:** 21 days ahead

## Dates and order-by dates

| Year | Date | Start stocking by |
| --- | --- | --- |
| 2026 | 2026-08-19 | 2026-07-29 |
| 2027 | 2027-08-08 | 2027-07-18 |
| 2028 | 2028-08-26 | 2028-08-05 |

For florists

## Turn this guide into a client design

We fill in the brief from this page. No stock yet? Load the sample flowers and see a recipe, quote and preview image in about a minute. New shops get 30 free credits.

Try it as a design — free

## How people buy for it

The seventh day of the seventh lunar month, from the legend of the Cowherd and the Weaver Girl, is China's traditional Valentine's Day. It falls in the August heat, when cut flowers travel and keep less well, so buy closer to the day and keep stock cool.

## The flowers that surge

| Flower | Role | Vase life | In season | Fragrance | Pets |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| [Rose](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/rose/) | Focal flower | 5–7 days | Year-round | Light | ✓ ASPCA non-toxic |

## What the surge does to material cost

If the affected flowers make up the share of a design's material cost shown below, a 1.5–2.5× surge raises the whole design's material cost by:

| Affected flowers as share of material cost | At 1.5× | At 2.5× |
| --- | --- | --- |
| 40% | +20% | +60% |
| 60% | +30% | +90% |
| 80% | +40% | +120% |

[How florists price arrangements: cost, markup and margin](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/florist-pricing-and-margin/)

## Alternatives that are not priced up

Flowers with the same role that are available at this time of year and not on this holiday's surge list — the basis for a "holiday-proof" option:

| Instead of | Consider |
| --- | --- |
| [Rose](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/rose/) | [Gerbera daisy](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/gerbera/), [Carnation](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/carnation/), [Lily](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/lily/), [Calla lily](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/calla/) |

## What florists should know

- Rose lasts about 5–7 days: lock in prices early, but do not make up arrangements too far ahead.
- For Chinese, Japanese and Korean clients avoid 4 stems (it sounds like "death"); for Japanese clients also avoid 9.

## FAQ

### When is Qixi in 2026, 2027, 2028?

2026: 2026-08-19; 2027: 2027-08-08; 2028: 2028-08-26 (Chinese mainland).

### Which flowers get more expensive before Qixi, and by how much?

Rose wholesale prices typically run 1.5–2.5× normal.

### How far ahead should florists stock up for Qixi?

About 21 days ahead — around 2026-07-29 for 2026 — and quote at holiday prices.

### What can florists offer instead of the flowers that surge before Qixi?

Instead of rose: gerbera daisy, carnation, lily, calla lily.

## Other holidays for the same flowers

[Valentine's Day](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/holidays/valentines-day/) · [Women's Day](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/holidays/womens-day/) · [White Day](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/holidays/white-day/) · [Mother's Day](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/holidays/mothers-day/) · [520 (May 20)](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/holidays/520/)

[Holiday flower price calendar](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/holiday-flower-prices/)

Last reviewed: 2026-10-31. Surges are typical wholesale ranges for stocking and quoting; local markets vary.


---

<!-- https://floreboard.com/en/guides/holidays/chinese-teachers-day/ -->

# Teachers' Day flowers: a florist's stocking guide

Before Teachers' Day (Chinese mainland), carnation, sunflower wholesale prices typically run 1.2–1.5× normal; stock up about 14 days ahead. Dates and order-by dates for 2026–2028.

- **Market:** Chinese mainland

- **Flowers affected:** [Carnation](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/carnation/), [Sunflower](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/sunflower/)

- **Typical price:** 1.2–1.5× normal wholesale

- **Stock up:** 14 days ahead

## Dates and order-by dates

| Year | Date | Start stocking by |
| --- | --- | --- |
| 2026 | 2026-09-10 | 2026-08-27 |
| 2027 | 2027-09-10 | 2027-08-27 |
| 2028 | 2028-09-10 | 2028-08-27 |

For florists

## Turn this guide into a client design

We fill in the brief from this page. No stock yet? Load the sample flowers and see a recipe, quote and preview image in about a minute. New shops get 30 free credits.

Try it as a design — free

## How people buy for it

10 September in mainland China. Students give single stems and small bouquets — carnations for gratitude, sunflowers for warmth — so demand is for many low-priced items rather than large pieces.

## The flowers that surge

| Flower | Role | Vase life | In season | Fragrance | Pets |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| [Carnation](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/carnation/) | Focal flower | 10–14 days | Year-round | Light | mildly toxic |
| [Sunflower](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/sunflower/) | Focal flower | 6–10 days | Summer | None | ✓ ASPCA non-toxic |

## What the surge does to material cost

If the affected flowers make up the share of a design's material cost shown below, a 1.2–1.5× surge raises the whole design's material cost by:

| Affected flowers as share of material cost | At 1.2× | At 1.5× |
| --- | --- | --- |
| 40% | +8% | +20% |
| 60% | +12% | +30% |
| 80% | +16% | +40% |

[How florists price arrangements: cost, markup and margin](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/florist-pricing-and-margin/)

## Alternatives that are not priced up

Flowers with the same role that are available at this time of year and not on this holiday's surge list — the basis for a "holiday-proof" option:

| Instead of | Consider |
| --- | --- |
| [Carnation](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/carnation/) | [Orchids (cut)](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/orchid/), [Heliconia](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/heliconia/), [Rose](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/rose/), [Chrysanthemum](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/chrysanthemum/) |
| [Sunflower](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/sunflower/) | [Marigold](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/marigold/), [Gerbera daisy](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/gerbera/), [Celosia](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/celosia/), [Calla lily](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/calla/) |

## What florists should know

- For Chinese, Japanese and Korean clients avoid 4 stems (it sounds like "death"); for Japanese clients also avoid 9.

## FAQ

### When is Teachers' Day in 2026, 2027, 2028?

2026: 2026-09-10; 2027: 2027-09-10; 2028: 2028-09-10 (Chinese mainland).

### Which flowers get more expensive before Teachers' Day, and by how much?

Carnation, Sunflower wholesale prices typically run 1.2–1.5× normal.

### How far ahead should florists stock up for Teachers' Day?

About 14 days ahead — around 2026-08-27 for 2026 — and quote at holiday prices.

### What can florists offer instead of the flowers that surge before Teachers' Day?

Instead of carnation: orchids (cut), heliconia, rose, chrysanthemum; Instead of sunflower: marigold, gerbera daisy, celosia, calla lily.

## Other holidays for the same flowers

[Women's Day](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/holidays/womens-day/) · [Mother's Day](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/holidays/mothers-day/) · [Parents' Day](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/holidays/korean-parents-day/)

[Holiday flower price calendar](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/holiday-flower-prices/)

Last reviewed: 2026-10-31. Surges are typical wholesale ranges for stocking and quoting; local markets vary.


---

<!-- https://floreboard.com/en/guides/holidays/christmas/ -->

# Christmas flowers: a florist's stocking guide

Before Christmas (Worldwide), pine, holly, heavenly bamboo (nandina) wholesale prices typically run 1.2–1.6× normal; stock up about 30 days ahead. Dates and order-by dates for 2026–2028.

- **Market:** Worldwide

- **Flowers affected:** [Pine](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/pine/), [Holly](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/holly/), [Heavenly bamboo (nandina)](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/nandina/)

- **Typical price:** 1.2–1.6× normal wholesale

- **Stock up:** 30 days ahead

## Dates and order-by dates

| Year | Date | Start stocking by |
| --- | --- | --- |
| 2026 | 2026-12-25 | 2026-11-25 |
| 2027 | 2027-12-25 | 2027-11-25 |
| 2028 | 2028-12-25 | 2028-11-25 |

For florists

## Turn this guide into a client design

We fill in the brief from this page. No stock yet? Load the sample flowers and see a recipe, quote and preview image in about a minute. New shops get 30 free credits.

Try it as a design — free

## How people buy for it

Evergreens, holly and berries go into wreaths, garlands and table pieces in red, green, white and gold. Wreath-making starts in late November for Advent, so greens are needed well before the day itself.

## The flowers that surge

| Flower | Role | Vase life | In season | Fragrance | Pets |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| [Pine](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/pine/) | Branch | 14–30 days | Year-round | Light | — |
| [Holly](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/holly/) | Branch | 14–30 days | Winter | None | mildly toxic |
| [Heavenly bamboo (nandina)](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/nandina/) | Accent / texture | 14–30 days | Autumn, Winter | None | mildly toxic |

## What the surge does to material cost

If the affected flowers make up the share of a design's material cost shown below, a 1.2–1.6× surge raises the whole design's material cost by:

| Affected flowers as share of material cost | At 1.2× | At 1.6× |
| --- | --- | --- |
| 40% | +8% | +24% |
| 60% | +12% | +36% |
| 80% | +16% | +48% |

[How florists price arrangements: cost, markup and margin](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/florist-pricing-and-margin/)

## Alternatives that are not priced up

Flowers with the same role that are available at this time of year and not on this holiday's surge list — the basis for a "holiday-proof" option:

| Instead of | Consider |
| --- | --- |
| [Pine](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/pine/) | [Juniper & arborvitae](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/juniper/), [Bamboo](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/bamboo/), [Curly willow](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/curlywillow/), [Photinia](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/photinia/) |
| [Holly](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/holly/) | [Bamboo](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/bamboo/), [Red-twig dogwood](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/dogwood/), [Curly willow](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/curlywillow/), [Photinia](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/photinia/) |
| [Heavenly bamboo (nandina)](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/nandina/) | [Leucadendron](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/leucadendron/), [Winterberry](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/redbean/), [Firethorn (pyracantha)](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/pyracantha/), [Banksia](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/banksia/) |

## FAQ

### When is Christmas in 2026, 2027, 2028?

2026: 2026-12-25; 2027: 2027-12-25; 2028: 2028-12-25 (Worldwide).

### Which flowers get more expensive before Christmas, and by how much?

Pine, Holly, Heavenly bamboo (nandina) wholesale prices typically run 1.2–1.6× normal.

### How far ahead should florists stock up for Christmas?

About 30 days ahead — around 2026-11-25 for 2026 — and quote at holiday prices.

### What can florists offer instead of the flowers that surge before Christmas?

Instead of pine: juniper & arborvitae, bamboo, curly willow, photinia; Instead of holly: bamboo, red-twig dogwood, curly willow, photinia; Instead of heavenly bamboo (nandina): leucadendron, winterberry, firethorn (pyracantha), banksia.

[Holiday flower price calendar](https://floreboard.com/en/guides/holiday-flower-prices/)

Last reviewed: 2026-10-31. Surges are typical wholesale ranges for stocking and quoting; local markets vary.


---

<!-- https://floreboard.com/en/plants/phalaenopsis/ -->

The Orchid Album · Pl. 277 · 1887 · John Nugent Fitch · public domain

# Phalaenopsis Blume

moth orchids · Orchidaceae

- **Accepted name:** Phalaenopsis Blume
- **First published:** Bijdr. Fl. Ned. Ind.: 294 (1825)
- **Family:** Orchidaceae
- **Accepted species:** 93 (including 10 natural hybrids)
- **Native range:** 34 TDWG regions, tropical and subtropical Asia to north-eastern Australia
- **Common names:** moth orchids
- **Databases:** [POWO](https://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:30326-1) · [IPNI](https://www.ipni.org/n/30326-1) · [WCVP](https://www.checklistbank.org/dataset/2232/taxon/151129) · [Catalogue of Life](https://www.catalogueoflife.org/data/taxon/8W2B9) · [GBIF](https://www.gbif.org/species/2804680)

## Overview

Phalaenopsis is a genus of the orchid family; most moth orchids sold by florists are hybrids selected over many generations. Genus, wild species, grex and an individual clone are different levels.

The native range runs from tropical and subtropical Asia to north-eastern Australia. Many species grow on tree trunks or branches, which give them support and diffuse light; the roots take air, rain and nutrients from the bark surface and do not draw sap from the tree.

Moth orchids usually grow monopodially: a short stem keeps producing new leaves at its tip, roots arise from the stem and inflorescences usually come from the leaf axils. The common commercial types have no obvious pseudobulb; fleshy leaves and roots store water.

## Classification and naming

Blume published Phalaenopsis in 1825. Its usual placement is family Orchidaceae, subfamily Epidendroideae, tribe Vandeae, subtribe Aeridinae. The name means “moth-like”, hence the English “moth orchid”.

Classification changes with molecular evidence. WCVP currently treats the generic names in the table below as synonyms of Phalaenopsis, so names such as Doritis, Kingidium or Polychilos on old labels and in older literature can be traced to this genus.

| Genus name | Published in |
| --- | --- |
| Doritis Lindl. | Gen. Sp. Orchid. Pl.: 178 (1833) |
| Grafia A.D.Hawkes | Phytologia 13: 305 (1966) |
| Grussia M.Wolff | Orchid. Atlas: 165 (2007) |
| Hygrochilus Pfitzer | H.G.A.Engler & K.A.E.Prantl, Nat. Pflanzenfam., Nachtr. 1: 112 (1897) |
| Kingidium P.F.Hunt | Kew Bull. 24: 97 (1970) |
| Kingiella Rolfe | Orchid Rev. 25: 196 (1917) |
| Lesliea Seidenf. | Opera Bot. 95: 190 (1988) |
| Nothodoritis Z.H.Tsi | Acta Phytotax. Sin. 27: 58 (1989) |
| Ornithochilus (Lindl.) Wall. ex Heynh. | Alph. Aufz. Gew. 2: 457 (1846) |
| Polychilos Breda | Gen. Sp. Orchid. Asclep. 1: t. [1] (1828) |
| Polystylus Hasselt ex Hassk. | Retzia 1: 3 (1855) |
| Sedirea Garay & H.R.Sweet | Orchids S. Ryukyu Is.: 149 (1974) |
| Stauritis Rchb.f. | Hamburger Garten- Blumenzeitung 18: 34 (1862) |
| Stauroglottis Schauer | Nov. Actorum Acad. Caes. Leop.-Carol. Nat. Cur. 19(Suppl. 1): 432 (1843) |
| Synadena Raf. | Fl. Tellur. 4: 9 (1838) |

## Distribution

WCVP records the genus as native to 34 TDWG botanical regions and introduced in 1 more.

Andaman Is.AssamBangladeshBismarck ArchipelagoBorneoCambodiaChina North-CentralChina South-CentralChina SoutheastEast HimalayaHainanIndiaJapanJawaKoreaLaosLesser Sunda Is.MalayaMalukuMyanmarNansei-shotoNepalNew GuineaNicobar Is.PhilippinesQueenslandSri LankaSulawesiSumateraTaiwanThailandTibetVietnamWest Himalaya

### Introduced

Panamá

## Accepted species

The full list is on https://floreboard.com/en/plants/phalaenopsis/#species.

## Historic plates

Plates in date order; the printed names are kept as they appear, current names are on the species pages and the topic page.

- [](https://floreboard.com/phalaenopsis/plates/bm-4297.jpg)Phalaenopsis amabilisCurtis's Botanical Magazine · 4297 · 1847, Walter Hood Fitch
- [](https://floreboard.com/phalaenopsis/plates/bm-5184.jpg)Phalaenopsis grandifloraCurtis's Botanical Magazine · 5184 · 1860, Walter Hood Fitch
- [](https://floreboard.com/phalaenopsis/plates/bm-5212.jpg)Phalaenopsis roseaCurtis's Botanical Magazine · 5212 · 1860, Walter Hood Fitch
- [](https://floreboard.com/phalaenopsis/plates/ih-10-348.jpg)Phalaenopsis schilleriana Reichb. f.L'Illustration horticole · 348 · 1863, P. Stroobant, L. Stroobant
- [](https://floreboard.com/phalaenopsis/plates/bm-5530.jpg)Phalaenopsis schillerianaCurtis's Botanical Magazine · 5530 · 1865, Walter Hood Fitch
- [](https://floreboard.com/phalaenopsis/plates/sc2-114.jpg)Phalaenopsis grandiflora (in text)A Second Century of Orchidaceous Plants · Pl. 114 · 1867, Walter Hood Fitch
- [](https://floreboard.com/phalaenopsis/plates/oa-6-277.jpg)Phalaenopsis grandifloraThe Orchid Album · Pl. 277 · 1887, John Nugent Fitch
- [](https://floreboard.com/phalaenopsis/plates/reichenbachia-1-11.jpg)Phalaenopsis grandiflora aureaReichenbachia: Orchids Illustrated and Described · Tab. 11 · 1888, Henry George Moon, Joseph Mansell
- [](https://floreboard.com/phalaenopsis/plates/reichenbachia-1-42.jpg)Phalaenopsis StuartianaReichenbachia: Orchids Illustrated and Described · Tab. 42 · 1888, Henry George Moon, Joseph Mansell
- [](https://floreboard.com/phalaenopsis/plates/reichenbachia-2-2-68.jpg)Phalaenopsis Sanderiana, Phalaenopsis intermedia PorteiReichenbachia: Orchids Illustrated and Described · Tab. 68 · 1892–1894, Henry George Moon, Joseph Mansell
- [](https://floreboard.com/phalaenopsis/plates/java-atlas-416-417.jpg)Phalaenopsis amabilis Bl., Phalaenopsis Hebe Rchb. f.Die Orchideen von Java, Figuren-Atlas · fig. CDXVI–CDXVII · 1912, Johannes Jacobus Smith, M. Kromohardjo

## Horticulture and breeding

The spread of the potted moth orchid rests on three linked steps: breeding, seed and tissue-culture propagation, and greenhouse scheduling of flowering. Early white and pink lines aimed at flower shape and cut-flower quality; the pot-plant market later added compact habit, branching spikes, flower count, patterning and scent.

A hybrid group (grex) comes from a defined cross and can be searched by grex or parentage in the RHS International Orchid Register; trade names and colour descriptions do not replace a traceable cultivar name.

## Further reading

- [Phalaenopsis amabilis · moon orchid](https://floreboard.com/en/plants/phalaenopsis-amabilis/)
- [Moth orchid (Phalaenopsis) topic library (in Chinese)](https://floreboard.com/phalaenopsis/)
- [Flower guide](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/orchid/)
- [Reference library](https://floreboard.com/en/library/)

## References

- [WCVP · World Checklist of Vascular Plants (via ChecklistBank dataset 2232)](https://www.checklistbank.org/dataset/2232) · accessed 2026-10-19
- [Kew POWO · Phalaenopsis: classification and distribution](https://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:30326-1/general-information)
- [University of Maryland Extension · Care of Phalaenopsis Orchids](https://extension.umd.edu/resource/care-phalaenopsis-orchids-moth-orchids)
- [Griesbach 2002 · Development of Phalaenopsis Orchids for the Mass-Market](https://hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/ncnu02/v5-458.html)
- [RHS · International Orchid Register](https://apps.rhs.org.uk/horticulturaldatabase/orchidregister/orchidregister.asp)

Names, places of publication, synonyms and distribution checked against WCVP (2026-10-19); the text follows the cited sources and awaits specialist review.


---

<!-- https://floreboard.com/en/plants/phalaenopsis-amabilis/ -->

Curtis's Botanical Magazine · 4297 · 1847 · Walter Hood Fitch · public domain

# Phalaenopsis amabilis (L.) Blume

Moon orchid · Orchidaceae

- **Accepted name:** Phalaenopsis amabilis (L.) Blume
- **Published (this combination):** Bijdr. Fl. Ned. Ind.: 294 (1825)
- **Basionym:** Epidendrum amabile L., Sp. Pl.: 953 (1753)
- **Genus:** [Phalaenopsis](https://floreboard.com/en/plants/phalaenopsis/) Blume · Orchidaceae
- **Common names:** moon orchid
- **Native range:** Bismarck Archipelago, Borneo, Jawa, Lesser Sunda Is., Maluku, New Guinea, Philippines, Queensland, Sulawesi, Sumatera
- **Subspecies:** 3
- **Databases:** [POWO](https://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:650501-1) · [IPNI](https://www.ipni.org/n/650501-1) · [WCVP](https://www.checklistbank.org/dataset/2232/taxon/151132) · [Catalogue of Life](https://www.catalogueoflife.org/data/taxon/4FR2J) · [GBIF](https://www.gbif.org/species/5311007)

## Identification

Typical flowers of P. amabilis are white with broad petals, the details of the lip standing out against the pure white petals. It should be kept apart from the similar P. aphrodite: both contributed to large white hybrids, and telling them apart needs the lip, the column and the provenance of the plant; a photograph of a white flower cannot show which one it is.

## Name history

The name goes back to Epidendrum amabile, published by Linnaeus in 1753; in 1825 Blume transferred it to Phalaenopsis. The author citation records this: the name in parentheses is the original author, the one outside made the new combination. The table lists the homotypic synonyms in WCVP with their places of publication.

| Name | Published in |
| --- | --- |
| Phalaenopsis amabilis (L.) Blume | Bijdr. Fl. Ned. Ind.: 294 (1825) |
| Cymbidium amabile (L.) Roxb. | Fl. Ind., ed. 1832. 3: 457 (1832) |
| Epidendrum amabile L. | Sp. Pl.: 953 (1753) |
| Synadena amabilis (L.) Raf. | Fl. Tellur. 4: 9 (1838) |

## Subspecies

WCVP accepts the following subspecies. Many historical names sit under them: Phalaenopsis grandiflora, common in the florilegia, is now a synonym of subsp. amabilis.

| Subspecies | Published in | Native range | Synonyms |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| Phalaenopsis amabilis subsp. amabilis | autonym | Borneo, Jawa, Lesser Sunda Is., Philippines, Sulawesi, Sumatera | 23Phalaenopsis amabilis f. aurea (R.Warner) O.GrussPhalaenopsis amabilis f. concolor Baume & ChristensonPhalaenopsis amabilis f. elysia O.GrussPhalaenopsis amabilis f. fuscata (Rchb.f.) O.Gruss & M.WolffPhalaenopsis amabilis subvar. gloriosa (Rchb.f.) AmesPhalaenopsis amabilis var. aurea (R.Warner) RolfePhalaenopsis amabilis var. fournieri Cogn.Phalaenopsis amabilis var. fuscata Rchb.f.Phalaenopsis amabilis var. gloriosa (Rchb.f.) BreroPhalaenopsis amabilis var. grandiflora (Lindl.) BatemanPhalaenopsis amabilis var. ramosa van DeventerPhalaenopsis amabilis var. rimestadiana L.LindenPhalaenopsis amabilis var. rimestadiana-alba Anon.Phalaenopsis aphrodite var. gloriosa (Rchb.f.) A.H.KentPhalaenopsis elisabethae Anon.Phalaenopsis gloriosa Rchb.f.Phalaenopsis grandiflora Lindl.Phalaenopsis grandiflora var. aurea R.WarnerPhalaenopsis grandiflora var. borneensis CorningPhalaenopsis grandiflora var. fuscata (Rchb.f.) Burb.Phalaenopsis grandiflora var. gracillima Burb.Phalaenopsis grandiflora var. ruckeri Burb.Phalaenopsis rimestadiana (L.Linden) Rolfe |
| Phalaenopsis amabilis subsp. moluccana (Schltr.) Christenson | Phalaenopsis: a monograph: 189 (2001) | Borneo, Maluku, Sulawesi | 3Phalaenopsis amabilis var. moluccana Schltr.Phalaenopsis amabilis var. cinerascens J.J.Sm.Phalaenopsis celebica Vlooten |
| Phalaenopsis amabilis subsp. rosenstromii (F.M.Bailey) Christenson | Phalaenopsis: a monograph: 190 (2001) | Bismarck Archipelago, New Guinea, Queensland | 3Phalaenopsis amabilis var. rosenstromii (F.M.Bailey) NichollsPhalaenopsis rosenstromii F.M.BaileyPhalaenopsis amabilis var. papuana Schltr. |

## Distribution

WCVP records the species as native to 10 TDWG botanical regions.

Bismarck ArchipelagoBorneoJawaLesser Sunda Is.MalukuNew GuineaPhilippinesQueenslandSulawesiSumatera

## Historic plates and the names printed on them

Plates carry the name in use at the time. Using the WCVP synonymy and misapplied names, the table maps each printed name to the current species or subspecies.

Printed name · sourceCurrent namePhalaenopsis amabilisCurtis's Botanical Magazine · 4297 · 1847Phalaenopsis amabilis (L.) Blume species only; no subspecies statedPhalaenopsis grandifloraCurtis's Botanical Magazine · 5184 · 1860Phalaenopsis amabilis subsp. amabilis WCVP synonym: Phalaenopsis grandiflora Lindl.Phalaenopsis grandiflora (in text)A Second Century of Orchidaceous Plants · Pl. 114 · 1867Phalaenopsis amabilis subsp. amabilis WCVP synonym: Phalaenopsis grandiflora Lindl.Phalaenopsis grandifloraThe Orchid Album · Pl. 277 · 1887Phalaenopsis amabilis subsp. amabilis WCVP synonym: Phalaenopsis grandiflora Lindl.Phalaenopsis grandiflora aureaReichenbachia: Orchids Illustrated and Described · Tab. 11 · 1888Phalaenopsis amabilis subsp. amabilis WCVP synonym: Phalaenopsis grandiflora var. aurea R.WarnerPhalaenopsis amabilis Bl.Die Orchideen von Java, Figuren-Atlas · fig. CDXVI–CDXVII · 1912Phalaenopsis amabilis (L.) Blume species only; no subspecies stated

## Horticulture and breeding

The moon orchid is one of the key wild species behind large white hybrids, though breeders also used other material. Commercial white cultivars have been crossed and selected for many generations, so petal overlap, substance, flower count and habit may differ markedly from the species; buy by the grex or cultivar on the label. Wild species may differ in seasonality and needs from the usual large-flowered hybrids.

## Further reading

- [Genus Phalaenopsis](https://floreboard.com/en/plants/phalaenopsis/)
- [Moth orchid (Phalaenopsis) topic library (in Chinese)](https://floreboard.com/phalaenopsis/#species-amabilis)
- [Flower guide](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/orchid/)
- [Reference library](https://floreboard.com/en/library/)

## References

- [WCVP · World Checklist of Vascular Plants (via ChecklistBank dataset 2232)](https://www.checklistbank.org/dataset/2232) · accessed 2026-10-19
- [Kew POWO · Phalaenopsis amabilis](https://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:650501-1)
- [Kew POWO · Phalaenopsis aphrodite](https://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:650507-1)
- [Griesbach 2002 · Development of Phalaenopsis Orchids for the Mass-Market](https://hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/ncnu02/v5-458.html)

Names, places of publication, synonyms and distribution checked against WCVP (2026-10-19); the text follows the cited sources and awaits specialist review.


---

<!-- https://floreboard.com/en/plants/rosa/ -->

Les Roses · 1817–1824 · Pierre-Joseph Redouté · public domain

# Rosa L.

roses · Rosaceae

- **Accepted name:** Rosa L.
- **First published:** Sp. Pl.: 491 (1753)
- **Family:** Rosaceae
- **Accepted species:** 422 (including 132 natural hybrids)
- **Native range:** 171 TDWG regions, Northern Hemisphere, mainly temperate
- **Common names:** roses
- **Databases:** [POWO](https://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:30002432-2) · [IPNI](https://www.ipni.org/n/30002432-2) · [WCVP](https://www.checklistbank.org/dataset/2232/taxon/2964569) · [Catalogue of Life](https://www.catalogueoflife.org/data/taxon/63S6D) · [GBIF](https://www.gbif.org/species/8395064)

## Overview

More than three thousand names at species rank have been published in Rosa; Trees and Shrubs Online reckons there are probably no more than 150 good species. Checklist counts also include many natural hybrids, so totals vary widely with the approach. The genus is mainly confined to the cooler parts of the Northern Hemisphere; only three or four species reach south of the Tropic of Cancer.

Recognise it by the hooked prickles (the rose “thorn”), the odd-pinnate leaves (simple in subgenus Hulthemia), the stipules present in all species except R. persica, and the hip that the receptacle becomes after flowering.

## Classification and naming

Linnaeus published Rosa in 1753 in Species Plantarum; it belongs to the Rosaceae. The two East Asian species of section Chinenses contributed more to modern garden roses than any other group.

WCVP treats the generic names in the table below as synonyms of Rosa, so Hulthemia, Hesperhodos, Platyrhodon and others in older literature can be traced to this genus.

| Genus name | Published in |
| --- | --- |
| × Hulthemosa Juz. | V.L.Komarov (ed.), Fl. URSS 10: 638 (1941) |
| Bakeria (Gand.) Gand. | Rad Jugoslav. Akad. Znan. 66: 131 (1883) |
| Chabertia (Gand.) Gand. | Rad Jugoslav. Akad. Znan. 66: 161 (1883) |
| Chavinia (Gand.) Gand. | Rad Jugoslav. Akad. Znan. 66: 157 (1883) |
| Cottetia (Gand.) Gand. | Rad Jugoslav. Akad. Znan. 66: 128 (1883) |
| Crepinia (Gand.) Gand. | Rad Jugoslav. Akad. Znan. 66: 139 (1883) |
| Ernestella Germ. | J. Roses (Paris) 2: 39 (1878) |
| Hesperhodos Cockerell | Nature 90: 571 (1913) |
| Hulthemia Dumort. | Not. Hulthemia: 12 (1824) |
| Juzepczukia Chrshan. | Dopov. Akad. Nauk Ukrayins’k. R.S.R. 1948(3): 24 (1948) |
| Laggeria (Gand.) Gand. | Rad Jugoslav. Akad. Znan. 66: 127 (1883) |
| Lowea Lindl. | Edwards's Bot. Reg. 15: t. 1261 (1829) |
| Ozanonia (Gand.) Gand. | Rad Jugoslav. Akad. Znan. 66: 132 (1883) |
| Platyrhodon Decne. ex Hurst | Z. Indukt. Abstammungs- Vererbungsl. 1927(Suppl. 2): 902 (1928) |
| Pugetia (Gand.) Gand. | Rad Jugoslav. Akad. Znan. 66: 173 (1883) |
| Rhodophora Neck. | Elem. Bot. 2: 91 (1790) |
| Rhodopsis (Endl.) Rchb. | Deut. Bot. Herb.-Buch, Nom.: 168 (1841) |
| Ripartia (Gand.) Gand. | Rad Jugoslav. Akad. Znan. 66: 118 (1883) |
| Saintpierrea Germ. | J. Roses (Paris) 2: 39 (1878) |
| Scheutzia (Gand.) Gand. | Rad Jugoslav. Akad. Znan. 66: 127 (1883) |

## Distribution

WCVP records the genus as native to 171 TDWG botanical regions and introduced in 37 more.

Native regions (171)

AfghanistanAlabamaAlaskaAlbaniaAlbertaAlgeriaAltayAmurArizonaArkansasAssamAustriaBalearesBaltic StatesBelarusBelgiumBritish ColumbiaBulgariaBuryatiyaCaliforniaCanary Is.Central European RussiaChina North-CentralChina South-CentralChina SoutheastChitaColoradoConnecticutCorseCyprusCzechia-SlovakiaDelawareDenmarkDistrict of ColumbiaEast Aegean Is.East European RussiaEast HimalayaEritreaEthiopiaFinlandFloridaFøroyarFranceGeorgiaGermanyGreat BritainGreeceHainanHungaryIcelandIdahoIllinoisIndiaIndianaInner MongoliaIowaIranIraqIrelandIrkutskItalyJapanKamchatkaKansasKazakhstanKentuckyKhabarovskKirgizstanKoreaKrasnoyarskKritiKrymLaosLebanon-SyriaLouisianaMadeiraMagadanMaineManchuriaManitobaMarylandMassachusettsMexico NortheastMexico NorthwestMichiganMinnesotaMississippiMissouriMongoliaMontanaMoroccoMyanmarNansei-shotoNebraskaNepalNetherlandsNevadaNew BrunswickNew HampshireNew JerseyNew MexicoNew YorkNewfoundlandNorth CarolinaNorth CaucasusNorth DakotaNorth European RussiaNorthwest European RussiaNorthwest TerritoriesNorwayNova ScotiaNunavutNW. Balkan Pen.OhioOklahomaOntarioOregonPakistanPalestinePennsylvaniaPhilippinesPolandPortugalPrimoryePrince Edward I.QinghaiQuébecRhode I.RomaniaSakhalinSardegnaSaskatchewanSaudi ArabiaSiciliaSinaiSomaliaSouth CarolinaSouth DakotaSouth European RussiaSpainSudan-South SudanSwedenSwitzerlandTadzhikistanTaiwanTennesseeTexasThailandTibetTranscaucasusTunisiaTürkiyeTürkiye-in-EuropeTurkmenistanTuvaUkraineUtahUzbekistanVermontVietnamVirginiaWashingtonWest HimalayaWest SiberiaWest VirginiaWisconsinWyomingXinjiangYakutiyaYemenYukon

### Introduced

Argentina NortheastArgentina SouthBangladeshBoliviaCape ProvincesCaroline Is.Chatham Is.Chile CentralChile SouthComorosCook Is.Falkland Is.Free StateGilbert Is.GuatemalaGulf of Guinea Is.HondurasKwaZulu-NatalLesothoLibyaMadagascarMarianasMexico CentralMexico GulfMexico SoutheastMexico SouthwestNew South WalesNew Zealand NorthNew Zealand SouthNorthern ProvincesQueenslandSouth AustraliaTasmaniaTrinidad-TobagoVanuatuVictoriaWestern Australia

## Accepted species

The full list is on https://floreboard.com/en/plants/rosa/#species.

## Historic plates

Plates in date order; the printed names are kept as they appear, current names are on the species pages and the topic page.

- [](https://floreboard.com/rose/plates/bm-284.jpg)Rosa semperflorens (in text)Curtis's Botanical Magazine · 284 · 1794,
- [](https://floreboard.com/rose/plates/les-roses-centifolia.jpg)Rosa Centifolia Anglica rubraLes Roses · 1817–1824, Pierre-Joseph Redouté
- [](https://floreboard.com/rose/plates/les-roses-gallica-regalis.jpg)Rosa Gallica RegalisLes Roses · 1817–1824, Pierre-Joseph Redouté
- [](https://floreboard.com/rose/plates/les-roses-kamtschatica.jpg)Rosa KamtschaticaLes Roses · 1817–1824, Pierre-Joseph Redouté
- [](https://floreboard.com/rose/plates/les-roses-multiflora.jpg)Rosa multiflora carneaLes Roses · 1817–1824, Pierre-Joseph Redouté
- [](https://floreboard.com/rose/plates/rosarum-monographia-19.jpg)Rosa rugosaRosarum Monographia; or, A Botanical History of Roses · 19 · 1820, John Lindley
- [](https://floreboard.com/rose/plates/choix-122.jpg)Rosa IndicaChoix des plus belles fleurs · 122 · 1827–1833, Pierre-Joseph Redouté
- [](https://floreboard.com/rose/plates/favourite-flowers-73.jpg)Rosa rugosa（Wrinkled Rose）Favourite Flowers of Garden and Greenhouse · Pl. 73 · 1896,

## Garden groups

Since 1955 the American Rose Society has been the International Cultivar Registration Authority for roses. It groups roses as species, old garden roses (classes in existence before 1867) and modern roses (classes that appeared after 1867). The first hybrid tea, introduced in 1867, marks the start of the modern era; the large-flowered cut roses sold by florists descend from this line.

## Further reading

- [Rosa chinensis · China rose](https://floreboard.com/en/plants/rosa-chinensis/)
- [Rosa rugosa · rugosa rose](https://floreboard.com/en/plants/rosa-rugosa/)
- [Roses (Rosa) topic library (in Chinese)](https://floreboard.com/rose/)
- [Flower guide](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/rose/)
- [Reference library](https://floreboard.com/en/library/)

## References

- [WCVP · World Checklist of Vascular Plants (via ChecklistBank dataset 2232)](https://www.checklistbank.org/dataset/2232) · accessed 2026-10-19
- [Trees and Shrubs Online · Rosa](https://www.treesandshrubsonline.org/articles/rosa/)
- [American Rose Society · Rose Classifications](https://rose.org/rose-classifications-2/)

Names, places of publication, synonyms and distribution checked against WCVP (2026-10-19); the text follows the cited sources and awaits specialist review.


---

<!-- https://floreboard.com/en/plants/rosa-chinensis/ -->

Curtis's Botanical Magazine · 284 · 1794 · public domain

# Rosa chinensis Jacq.

China rose · Rosaceae

- **Accepted name:** Rosa chinensis Jacq.
- **First published:** Observ. Bot. 3: 7 (1768)
- **Genus:** [Rosa](https://floreboard.com/en/plants/rosa/) L. · Rosaceae
- **Common names:** China rose
- **Native range:** China North-Central, China South-Central
- **Introduced:** 22 regions
- **Databases:** [POWO](https://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:732029-1) · [IPNI](https://www.ipni.org/n/732029-1) · [WCVP](https://www.checklistbank.org/dataset/2232/taxon/2902099) · [Catalogue of Life](https://www.catalogueoflife.org/data/taxon/4TD2S) · [GBIF](https://www.gbif.org/species/3005039)

## Identification

Rosa chinensis is a shrub of variable habit with three or five leaflets and single or semi-double flowers from light pink to crimson. Trees and Shrubs Online calls it “essentially a race of garden roses”, shaped by long selection in Chinese gardens.

## Names and synonyms

Jacquin published Rosa chinensis in 1768. European literature also called the plant Rosa semperflorens, Rosa indica and other names; the table lists the homotypic synonyms and misapplied names recorded in WCVP, with the full synonymy below it.

| Name | Published in |
| --- | --- |
| Rosa chinensis Jacq. | Observ. Bot. 3: 7 (1768) |
| Rosa bengalensis chinensis (Jacq.) Pers. | Syn. Pl. 2: 50 (1806) |

Misapplied names (names used for this species in error): Rosa indica auct. non Lour.

51 heterotypic synonyms

| Rosa bengalensis Pers. | Syn. Pl. 2: 50 (1806) |
| --- | --- |
| Rosa bengalensis odorata Wallr. | Ros. Pl. Gen. Hist.: 107 (1828) |
| Rosa bengalensis odoratissima Wallr. | Ros. Pl. Gen. Hist.: 107 (1828) |
| Rosa chinensis f. spontanea Rehder & E.H.Wilson | C.S.Sargent, Pl. Wilson. 2: 320 (1915) |
| Rosa chinensis f. viridiflora (Lavallée) C.K.Schneid. | Ill. Handb. Laubholzk. 1: 546 (1905) |
| Rosa chinensis prol. indica (Koehne) R.Keller | P.F.A.Ascherson & K.O.R.Graebner, Syn. Mitteleur. Fl. 6(1): 45 (1900) |
| Rosa chinensis prol. semperflorens (W.M.Curtis) R.Keller | P.F.A.Ascherson & K.O.R.Graebner, Syn. Mitteleur. Fl. 6(1): 45 (1900) |
| Rosa chinensis semperflorens K.Koch | Dendrologie 1: 273 (1869) |
| Rosa chinensis subsp. indica Koehne | Deut. Dendrol.: 281 (1893) |
| Rosa chinensis var. coccinea Yu Y.Yang & L.Luo | Rosa China: 435 (2024) |
| Rosa chinensis var. devoniensis Rehder | L.H.Bailey, Cycl. Amer. Hort. 4: 1551 (1902) |
| Rosa chinensis var. erubescens Yu Y.Yang & L.Luo | Rosa China: 439 (2024) |
| Rosa chinensis var. indica (Koehne) Rehder | L.H.Bailey, Cycl. Amer. Hort. 4: 1551 (1902) |
| Rosa chinensis var. longifolia (Willd.) Rehder | L.H.Bailey, Cycl. Amer. Hort. 4: 1551 (1902) |
| Rosa chinensis var. minima (Sims) Voss | Vilm. Blumengärtn., ed. 3. 1: 257 (1894) |
| Rosa chinensis var. multijuga Yu Y.Yang & L.Luo | Rosa China: 441 (2024) |
| Rosa chinensis var. persicina Yu Y.Yang & L.Luo | Rosa China: 437 (2024) |
| Rosa chinensis var. pubescens Yu Y.Yang & L.Luo | Rosa China: 433 (2024) |
| Rosa chinensis var. semperflorens (W.M.Curtis) Koehne | Deut. Dendrol.: 281 (1893) |
| Rosa chinensis var. spontanea (Rehder & E.H.Wilson) T.T.Yu & T.C.Ku | Fl. Reipubl. Popularis Sin. 37: 423 (1985) |
| Rosa chinensis viridiflora Dippel | Handb. Laubholzk. 3: 562 (1893) |
| Rosa diversifolia Vent. | Descr. Pl. Nouv.: t. 35 (1801) |
| Rosa diversifolia var. viridiflora Lavallée | Hort. Franç. 1856: 218 (1856) |
| Rosa indica Lindl. | Ros. Monogr.: 106 (1820) |
| Rosa indica pumila Thory | P.J.Redouté & C.A.Thory, Roses 1: 115 (1817) |
| Rosa indica var. bengalensis K.Koch | Hort. Dendrol.: 122 (1853) |
| Rosa indica var. humilis Ser. | Mél. Bot. 1: 44 (1818) |
| Rosa indica var. longifolia (Willd.) Lindl. | Ros. Monogr.: 106 (1820) |
| Rosa indica var. minima Bean | Trees & Shrubs Brit. Isles 2: 430 (1914) |
| Rosa indica var. pumila (Thory) Lindl. | Ros. Monogr.: 106 (1820) |
| Rosa indica var. semperflorens (W.M.Curtis) Ser. | A.P.de Candolle, Prodr. 2: 601 (1825) |
| Rosa indica var. vulgaris Thory | P.J.Redouté & C.A.Thory, Roses 1: 51 (1817) |
| Rosa laurentiae Tratt. | Rosac. Monogr. 1: 105 (1823) |
| Rosa lawranceana Sweet | Hort. Suburb. Lond.: 119 (1818) |
| Rosa longifolia Willd. | Sp. Pl., ed. 4. 2: 1097 (1799) |
| Rosa monstrosa Breiter | Hort. Breiter.: 425 (1817) |
| Rosa nankinensis Lour. | Fl. Cochinch. 1: 324 (1790) |
| Rosa nanula Hoffmanns. | Verz. Pfl.-Kult.: 108 (1824) |
| Rosa rouletii Correvon | Gard. Chron., ser. 3, 72: 342 (1922) |
| Rosa semperflorens W.M.Curtis | Bot. Mag. 8: t. 284 (1794) |
| Rosa semperflorens carnea Redouté | P.J.Redouté & C.A.Thory, Roses 1: t. 19 (1817) |
| Rosa semperflorens carnea Rössig | unknown publication |
| Rosa semperflorens minor Andrews | Roses Monogr. 2: t. 73 (1826) |
| Rosa semperflorens simplex Andrews | Roses Monogr. 2: t. 74 (1805-1828) |
| Rosa semperflorens var. longifolia (Willd.) Regel | Trudy Imp. S.-Peterburgsk. Bot. Sada 5: 356 (1878) |
| Rosa semperflorens var. manettii Regel | Trudy Imp. S.-Peterburgsk. Bot. Sada 5: 357 (1878) |
| Rosa semperflorens var. minima Sims | Bot. Mag. 42: t. 1762 (1815) |
| Rosa semperflorens var. molinerii Spin | Jard. St. Sebastien, ed. 1818: 33 (1818) |
| Rosa semperflorens var. viridiflora Regel | Trudy Imp. S.-Peterburgsk. Bot. Sada 5: 357 (1878) |
| Rosa sinica L. | J.A.Murray (ed.), Syst. Veg., ed. 13.: 394 (1774) |
| Rosa sinica var. typica Regel | Trudy Imp. S.-Peterburgsk. Bot. Sada 5: 327 (1878) |

## Distribution

WCVP records the species as native to 2 TDWG botanical regions and introduced in 22 more.

China North-CentralChina South-Central

### Introduced

AlabamaAssamBelgiumBulgariaCook Is.GreeceGuatemalaGulf of Guinea Is.IndiaInner MongoliaItalyKazakhstanKoreaLaosNepalPakistanQueenslandUzbekistanVanuatuVietnamWest HimalayaWestern Australia

## Historic plates and the names printed on them

Plates carry the name in use at the time. Using the WCVP synonymy and misapplied names, the table maps each printed name to the current species or subspecies.

Printed name · sourceCurrent nameRosa semperflorens (in text)Curtis's Botanical Magazine · 284 · 1794Rosa chinensis Jacq. WCVP synonym: Rosa semperflorens W.M.CurtisRosa IndicaChoix des plus belles fleurs · 122 · 1827–1833Rosa chinensis Jacq. misapplied name (WCVP: Rosa indica auct. non Lour.)

## Arrival in Europe and repeat flowering

Its chief gift to modern roses is repeat flowering: successive crops of flowers on the same stem. China roses reached Europe at the end of the eighteenth century: the Pink China came to Britain through Joseph Banks in 1789, ‘Slater’s Crimson China’ about 1791, ‘Parsons’ Pink China’ was in commerce by 1793, ‘Hume’s Blush Tea-scented China’ arrived a few years before 1810 and ‘Parks’ Yellow’ was collected in China in 1824. Through two lines of descent the Pink China is an ancestor of most modern garden roses.

## Further reading

- [Genus Rosa](https://floreboard.com/en/plants/rosa/)
- [Roses (Rosa) topic library (in Chinese)](https://floreboard.com/rose/#chinensis)
- [Flower guide](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/rose/)
- [Reference library](https://floreboard.com/en/library/)

## References

- [WCVP · World Checklist of Vascular Plants (via ChecklistBank dataset 2232)](https://www.checklistbank.org/dataset/2232) · accessed 2026-10-19
- [Trees and Shrubs Online · Rosa chinensis](https://www.treesandshrubsonline.org/articles/rosa/rosa-chinensis/)
- [iPlant (Institute of Botany, CAS) · Rosa chinensis](https://www.iplant.cn/info/Rosa%20chinensis)

Names, places of publication, synonyms and distribution checked against WCVP (2026-10-19); the text follows the cited sources and awaits specialist review.


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<!-- https://floreboard.com/en/plants/rosa-rugosa/ -->

Les Roses · 1817–1824 · Pierre-Joseph Redouté · public domain

# Rosa rugosa Thunb.

Rugosa rose · Rosaceae

- **Accepted name:** Rosa rugosa Thunb.
- **First published:** J.A.Murray, Syst. Veg., ed. 14: 473 (1784)
- **Genus:** [Rosa](https://floreboard.com/en/plants/rosa/) L. · Rosaceae
- **Common names:** rugosa rose, Japanese rose
- **Native range:** China North-Central, Japan, Kamchatka, Korea, Manchuria, Primorye, Sakhalin
- **Introduced:** 60 regions
- **Databases:** [POWO](https://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:927373-1) · [IPNI](https://www.ipni.org/n/927373-1) · [WCVP](https://www.checklistbank.org/dataset/2232/taxon/2902118) · [Catalogue of Life](https://www.catalogueoflife.org/data/taxon/4TDX9) · [GBIF](https://www.gbif.org/species/3003979)

## Identification

Rosa rugosa is a sturdy shrub about 1.2–1.8 m tall with stems densely covered in prickles of unequal size. The deeply impressed veins give the leaflets the wrinkled look that the epithet rugosa describes. The very fragrant purplish-rose flowers are about 9 cm across and appear from early summer onwards; the bright red, tomato-shaped hips are 2.5 cm or more across and crowned with the sepals.

## Names and synonyms

Thunberg published Rosa rugosa in 1784. It was grown in Britain by the end of the eighteenth century under the name Rosa ferox, and the Rosa Kamtschatica of Redouté’s Les Roses is also a synonym in WCVP. The full synonymy can be expanded below.

| Name | Published in |
| --- | --- |
| Rosa rugosa Thunb. | J.A.Murray, Syst. Veg., ed. 14: 473 (1784) |
| Rosa rugosa var. typica Regel | Trudy Imp. S.-Peterburgsk. Bot. Sada 5: 309 (1878) |

42 heterotypic synonyms

| Rosa andreae Lange | Index Seminum (C, Hauniensi) 1874: 23 (1874) |
| --- | --- |
| Rosa calocarpa (André) E.Willm. | Rosa 1: 189 (1911) |
| Rosa camschatica Lindl. | Ros. Monogr.: 6 (1820) |
| Rosa coruscans K.F.Waitz ex Link | Enum. Hort. Berol. Alt. 2: 57 (1822) |
| Rosa fastuosa K.Koch | Dendrologie 1: 239 (1869) |
| Rosa ferox Lawrance | Collect. Roses Nat.: t. 42 (1797) |
| Rosa kamtchatica Vent. | Descr. Pl. Nouv.: t. 67 (1802) |
| Rosa kamtchatica var. ferox (Lawrance) Ser. | A.P.de Candolle, Prodr. 2: 607 (1825) |
| Rosa kamtchatica var. ferox Van Geel | Sert. Bot. 4 (cl. 13): t. (1832) |
| Rosa kamtchatica var. nitens Lindl. | Bot. Reg. 10: t. 824 (1824) |
| Rosa maikwai H.Hara | J. Jap. Bot. 32: 315 (1957) |
| Rosa pubescens Baker | E.A.Willmott, Genus Rosa 2(25): 499 (1914) |
| Rosa regeliana Linden & André | Ill. Hort. 18: 11 (1871) |
| Rosa rugosa alba T.S.Ware | Garden (London, 1871-1927) 6: 262 (1874) |
| Rosa rugosa calocarpa André | Rev. Hort. (Paris) 63: 129 (1891) |
| Rosa rugosa f. alba (T.S.Ware) Rehder | Bibliogr. Cult. Trees: 306 (1949) |
| Rosa rugosa f. albaplena (Rehder) Rehder | Bibliogr. Cult. Trees: 306 (1949) |
| Rosa rugosa f. amurensis Debeaux | Actes Soc. Linn. Bordeaux 31: 152 (1876) |
| Rosa rugosa f. plena (Regel) Bijh. | J. Arnold Arbor. 10: 98 (1929) |
| Rosa rugosa f. rosea (Rehder) Rehder | Bibliogr. Cult. Trees: 306 (1949) |
| Rosa rugosa f. rubroplena (Rehder) Rehder | J. Arnold Arbor. 5: 204 (1924) |
| Rosa rugosa repens-alba Anon. | Garden (London, 1871-1927) 74: 279 (1910) |
| Rosa rugosa subsp. coruscans (K.F.Waitz ex Link) Juel, R.E.Fr. & Örtendahl | Index Seminum (UPS, Upsaliensi) 1910: 15 (1911) |
| Rosa rugosa var. alba (T.S.Ware) Rehder | L.H.Bailey, Cycl. Amer. Hort. 4: 1556 (1902) |
| Rosa rugosa var. albaplena Rehder | L.H.Bailey, Cycl. Amer. Hort. 4: 1556 (1902) |
| Rosa rugosa var. albiflora Koidz. | Bot. Mag. (Tokyo) 23: 180 (1909) |
| Rosa rugosa var. chamissoniana Rehder & E.H.Wilson | C.S.Sargent, Pl. Wilson. 2: 321 (1915) |
| Rosa rugosa var. chamissoniana C.A.Mey. | Zimmtrosen: 34 (1847) |
| Rosa rugosa var. coruscans (K.F.Waitz ex Link) Koehne | Deut. Dendrol.: 298 (1893) |
| Rosa rugosa var. ferox C.A.Mey. | Zimmtrosen: 33 (1847) |
| Rosa rugosa var. glabriuscula Crép. | Bull. Soc. Roy. Bot. Belgique 11: 55 (1872) |
| Rosa rugosa var. kamtchatica (Vent.) Regel | Trudy Imp. S.-Peterburgsk. Bot. Sada 5: 310 (1878) |
| Rosa rugosa var. lindleyana C.A.Mey. | Zimmtrosen: 34 (1847) |
| Rosa rugosa var. nitens (Lindl.) Regel | Trudy Imp. S.-Peterburgsk. Bot. Sada 5: 310 (1878) |
| Rosa rugosa var. plena Regel | Trudy Imp. S.-Peterburgsk. Bot. Sada 5: 310 (1878) |
| Rosa rugosa var. regeliana (Linden & André) Wittm. | Gartenflora 42: 539 (1893) |
| Rosa rugosa var. rosea Rehder | L.H.Bailey, Cycl. Amer. Hort. 4: 1556 (1902) |
| Rosa rugosa var. rubra Rehder | L.H.Bailey, Cycl. Amer. Hort. 4: 1556 (1902) |
| Rosa rugosa var. rubroplena Rehder | L.H.Bailey, Stand. Cycl. Hort. 5: 2992 (1916) |
| Rosa rugosa var. subinermis C.A.Mey. | Zimmtrosen: 36 (1847) |
| Rosa rugosa var. thunbergiana C.A.Mey. | Zimmtrosen: 32 (1847) |
| Rosa rugosa var. ventenatiana C.A.Mey. | Zimmtrosen: 35 (1847) |

## Distribution

WCVP records the species as native to 7 TDWG botanical regions and introduced in 60 more.

China North-CentralJapanKamchatkaKoreaManchuriaPrimoryeSakhalin

### Introduced

Introduced regions (60)

AlaskaAltayBaltic StatesBelarusBelgiumBritish ColumbiaBulgariaBuryatiyaCentral European RussiaConnecticutCzechia-SlovakiaDelawareDenmarkEast European RussiaFalkland Is.FinlandFranceGermanyGreat BritainHungaryIllinoisInner MongoliaIrelandItalyKentuckyMaineMarylandMassachusettsMichiganMinnesotaMissouriNetherlandsNew BrunswickNew HampshireNew JerseyNew YorkNewfoundlandNorth European RussiaNorthwest European RussiaNorwayNova ScotiaNW. Balkan Pen.OhioOntarioPennsylvaniaPolandPrince Edward I.QuébecRhode I.RomaniaSouth European RussiaSwedenSwitzerlandUkraineUtahVermontVirginiaWashingtonWest VirginiaWisconsin

## Historic plates and the names printed on them

Plates carry the name in use at the time. Using the WCVP synonymy and misapplied names, the table maps each printed name to the current species or subspecies.

Printed name · sourceCurrent nameRosa KamtschaticaLes Roses · 1817–1824Rosa rugosa Thunb. WCVP synonym: Rosa kamtchatica Vent.  (spelt differently on the plate)Rosa rugosaRosarum Monographia; or, A Botanical History of Roses · 19 · 1820Rosa rugosa Thunb.Rosa rugosa（Wrinkled Rose）Favourite Flowers of Garden and Greenhouse · Pl. 73 · 1896Rosa rugosa Thunb.

## Native range and uses

Native to the Russian Far East, Korea, Japan and northern China, it is most common on sandy soils near the sea. Breeders value its hardiness and disease-resistant foliage. Florists rarely use it as a cut flower, but it is the plant the Chinese name 玫瑰 originally refers to.

## Further reading

- [Genus Rosa](https://floreboard.com/en/plants/rosa/)
- [Roses (Rosa) topic library (in Chinese)](https://floreboard.com/rose/#rugosa)
- [Flower guide](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/rose/)
- [Reference library](https://floreboard.com/en/library/)

## References

- [WCVP · World Checklist of Vascular Plants (via ChecklistBank dataset 2232)](https://www.checklistbank.org/dataset/2232) · accessed 2026-10-19
- [Trees and Shrubs Online · Rosa rugosa](https://www.treesandshrubsonline.org/articles/rosa/rosa-rugosa/)
- [iPlant (Institute of Botany, CAS) · Rosa rugosa](https://www.iplant.cn/info/Rosa%20rugosa)
- [Kew POWO · Rosa rugosa](https://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:927373-1)

Names, places of publication, synonyms and distribution checked against WCVP (2026-10-19); the text follows the cited sources and awaits specialist review.


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<!-- https://floreboard.com/en/plants/chrysanthemum/ -->

Favourite Flowers of Garden and Greenhouse · Pl. 150 · 1897 · public domain

# Chrysanthemum L.

chrysanthemums · Asteraceae

- **Accepted name:** Chrysanthemum L.
- **First published:** Sp. Pl.: 887 (1753)
- **Family:** Asteraceae
- **Accepted species:** 41 (including 7 natural hybrids)
- **Native range:** 35 TDWG regions, temperate Eurasia, chiefly East Asia
- **Common names:** chrysanthemums
- **Databases:** [POWO](https://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:331492-2) · [IPNI](https://www.ipni.org/n/331492-2) · [WCVP](https://www.checklistbank.org/dataset/2232/taxon/3133287) · [Catalogue of Life](https://www.catalogueoflife.org/data/taxon/3PDW) · [GBIF](https://www.gbif.org/species/3150746)

## Overview

Chrysanthemum belongs to the daisy family, Asteraceae; the name comes from the Greek for “gold” and “flower”. The florist’s chrysanthemum is the hybrid Chrysanthemum × morifolium. Other plants called “chrysanthemum” or “daisy” in trade belong to different genera in WCVP.

## Classification and naming

Linnaeus published Chrysanthemum in Species Plantarum in 1753. In the twentieth century some authors moved the cultivated chrysanthemum and its relatives to Dendranthema, a name common in older Chinese literature; WCVP now treats Dendranthema as a synonym of Chrysanthemum.

| Genus name | Published in |
| --- | --- |
| Dendranthema (DC.) Des Moul. | Actes Soc. Linn. Bordeaux 20: 561 (1860) |

## Distribution

WCVP records the genus as native to 35 TDWG botanical regions and introduced in 41 more.

AltayAmurBuryatiyaCentral European RussiaChina North-CentralChina South-CentralChina SoutheastChitaCzechia-SlovakiaEast European RussiaEast HimalayaInner MongoliaIrkutskJapanKhabarovskKoreaKrasnoyarskLaosMagadanManchuriaMongoliaNansei-shotoNepalNorth European RussiaPolandPrimoryeQinghaiSakhalinTaiwanTuvaUkraineVietnamWest SiberiaXinjiangYakutiya

### Introduced

Introduced regions (41)

AssamBalearesBoliviaBorneoBulgariaColombiaCosta RicaCubaDominican RepublicEcuadorEl SalvadorFranceGermanyGuatemalaGulf of Guinea Is.HainanHondurasItalyJawaLesser Sunda Is.MalayaMarianasMauritiusMexico CentralMexico GulfMexico NortheastMexico NorthwestMexico SoutheastMexico SouthwestPakistanPanamáPeruPhilippinesPortugalRéunionRomaniaSumateraTadzhikistanTunisiaTurkmenistanUzbekistan

## Accepted species

The full list is on https://floreboard.com/en/plants/chrysanthemum/#species.

## Historic plates

Plates in date order; the printed names are kept as they appear, current names are on the species pages and the topic page.

- [](https://floreboard.com/chrysanthemum/plates/bm-327.jpg)Chrysanthemum indicum (in text)Curtis's Botanical Magazine · 327 · 1796,
- [](https://floreboard.com/chrysanthemum/plates/bot-reg-4.jpg)Chrysanthemum indicum var.Edwards's Botanical Register · Pl. 4 · 1815, Sydenham Edwards, F. Sansom
- [](https://floreboard.com/chrysanthemum/plates/american-flora-3-1.jpg)Indian ChrysanthemumThe American Flora · pl. 1 · 1855,
- [](https://floreboard.com/chrysanthemum/plates/flora-filipinas-290.jpg)Pyrethrum sinenseFlora de Filipinas, gran edición (Atlas) · 290 · 1880–1883, C. Verdaguer
- [](https://floreboard.com/chrysanthemum/plates/favourite-flowers-148.jpg)Chrysanthemum sinense, vars.Favourite Flowers of Garden and Greenhouse · Pl. 148 · 1897,
- [](https://floreboard.com/chrysanthemum/plates/favourite-flowers-150.jpg)Chrysanthemum sinense, var. Mont d'OrFavourite Flowers of Garden and Greenhouse · Pl. 150 · 1897,

## Garden flower forms

The National Chrysanthemum Society groups garden chrysanthemums into 13 classes by flower form, including incurve, reflex, decorative, pompon, single and semi-double, anemone, spoon, quill and spider; the NYBG and several studies use this system.

## Further reading

- [Chrysanthemum × morifolium · florist’s chrysanthemum](https://floreboard.com/en/plants/chrysanthemum-morifolium/)
- [Chrysanthemums topic library (in Chinese)](https://floreboard.com/chrysanthemum/)
- [Flower guide](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/chrysanthemum/)
- [Reference library](https://floreboard.com/en/library/)

## References

- [WCVP · World Checklist of Vascular Plants (via ChecklistBank dataset 2232)](https://www.checklistbank.org/dataset/2232) · accessed 2026-10-20
- [NYBG LuEsther T. Mertz Library · Chrysanthemums: History and Flower Forms](https://libguides.nybg.org/c.php?g=655086)
- [Taufique et al. 2017 · Acta Horticulturae 1167](https://doi.org/10.17660/ActaHortic.2017.1167.50)

Names, places of publication, synonyms and distribution checked against WCVP (2026-10-20); the text follows the cited sources and awaits specialist review.


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<!-- https://floreboard.com/en/plants/chrysanthemum-morifolium/ -->

Curtis's Botanical Magazine · 327 · 1796 · public domain

# Chrysanthemum × morifolium (Ramat.) Hemsl.

Florist’s chrysanthemum · Asteraceae

- **Accepted name:** Chrysanthemum × morifolium (Ramat.) Hemsl.
- **Published (this combination):** Gard. Chron., ser. 3, 6: 586 (1889)
- **Basionym:** Matricaria × morifolia Ramat., J. Hist. Nat. 2: 240 (1792)
- **Genus:** [Chrysanthemum](https://floreboard.com/en/plants/chrysanthemum/) L. · Asteraceae
- **Common names:** florist’s chrysanthemum, Chrysanthemum
- **Native range:** China Southeast
- **Introduced:** 31 regions
- **Databases:** [POWO](https://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:77111328-1) · [IPNI](https://www.ipni.org/n/77111328-1) · [WCVP](https://www.checklistbank.org/dataset/2232/taxon/2901061) · [Catalogue of Life](https://www.catalogueoflife.org/data/taxon/5YJBP) · [GBIF](https://www.gbif.org/species/3150767)

## Name and origin

iPlant gives the accepted name of the cultivated chrysanthemum as Chrysanthemum × morifolium; the × marks its hybrid origin. According to the NYBG library, chrysanthemums were first cultivated in China, at first mainly as a culinary herb; in Japan they gained royal status and appear on the Emperor’s official seal and crest.

## Names, synonyms and misapplied names

The basionym is Matricaria × morifolia, published by Ramatuelle in 1792; Hemsley transferred it to Chrysanthemum in 1889. When Curtis’s Botanical Magazine recorded its recent arrival in England in 1796 (plate 327), it used the name Chrysanthemum indicum; WCVP lists that usage as a misapplied name, the wild C. indicum being a different species. The table lists the homotypic synonyms in WCVP; heterotypic synonyms can be expanded below.

| Name | Published in |
| --- | --- |
| Chrysanthemum × morifolium (Ramat.) Hemsl. | Gard. Chron., ser. 3, 6: 586 (1889) |
| Dendranthema × morifolium (Ramat.) Tzvelev | V.L.Komarov (ed.), Fl. URSS 26: 373 (1961) |
| Matricaria × morifolia Ramat. | J. Hist. Nat. 2: 240 (1792) |

Misapplied names (names used for this species in error): Chrysanthemum × indicum auct. non Thunb.

22 heterotypic synonyms

| Anthemis × artemisifolia Willd. | Sp. Pl., ed. 4. 3: 2184 (1803) |
| --- | --- |
| Anthemis × grandiflora Ramat. | J. Hist. Nat. 2: 234 (1792) |
| Anthemis × stipulacea Moench | Suppl. Meth.: 258 (1802) |
| Chrysanthemum × hortorum W.Mill. | L.H.Bailey, Stand. Cycl. Hort. 2: 755 (1914) |
| Chrysanthemum × maximoviczianum Y.Ling | Contr. Inst. Bot. Natl. Acad. Peiping 3: 459 (1935) |
| Chrysanthemum × morifolium Ramat. | J. Hist. Nat. 2: 240 (1792) |
| Chrysanthemum × morifolium var. gracile Hemsl. | Gard. Chron., ser. 3, 6: 586 (1889) |
| Chrysanthemum × morifolium var. sinense (Sabine) Makino | Bot. Mag. (Tokyo) 26: 215 (1912) |
| Chrysanthemum × sinense Sabine | Trans. Linn. Soc. London 14: 145 (1823) |
| Chrysanthemum × sinense var. spontaneum Makino | Bot. Mag. (Tokyo) 23: 18 (1909) |
| Chrysanthemum × stipulaceum (Moench) W.Wight | U.S.D.A. Bur. Pl. Industr. Bull. 137: 21 (1909) |
| Chrysanthemum indicum var. maruyamanum Kitam. | Acta Phytotax. Geobot. 10: 173 (1941) |
| Chrysanthemum indicum var. purpureum Pers. | Syn. Pl. 2: 461 (1807) |
| Chrysanthemum indicum var. tsurugisanense Kitam. | Acta Phytotax. Geobot. 22: 128 (1967) |
| Dendranthema × grandiflorum (Ramat.) Kitam. | Acta Phytotax. Geobot. 29: 165 (1978) |
| Dendranthema × sinense (Sabine) Des Moul. | Actes Soc. Linn. Bordeaux 20: 562 (1860) |
| Dendranthema indicum var. maruyamanum (Kitam.) Kitam. | Acta Phytotax. Geobot. 29: 165 (1978) |
| Dendranthema indicum var. tsurugisanense (Kitam.) Kitam. | Acta Phytotax. Geobot. 29: 166 (1978) |
| Pyrethrum × sinense (Sabine) DC. | Prodr. 6: 62 (1838) |
| Pyrethrum × sinense var. plenum Maxim. | Mélanges Biol. Bull. Phys.-Math. Acad. Imp. Sci. Saint-Pétersbourg 8: 518 (1872) |
| Tanacetum × morifolium Kitam. | Mem. Coll. Sci. Kyoto Imp. Univ., Ser. B, Biol. 15: 373 (1940) |
| Tanacetum × sinense (Sabine) Sch.Bip. | Tanaceteen: 50 (1844) |

## Distribution

WCVP records the species as native to 1 TDWG botanical regions and introduced in 31 more.

China Southeast

### Introduced

BorneoChina North-CentralChina South-CentralColombiaCosta RicaEcuadorEl SalvadorGermanyGuatemalaHainanHondurasInner MongoliaItalyJapanJawaLesser Sunda Is.MalayaManchuriaMarianasMexico CentralMexico GulfMexico NortheastMexico NorthwestMexico SoutheastMexico SouthwestPanamáPeruPhilippinesQinghaiSumateraTunisia

## Historic plates and the names printed on them

Plates carry the name in use at the time. Using the WCVP synonymy and misapplied names, the table maps each printed name to the current species or subspecies.

Printed name · sourceCurrent nameChrysanthemum indicum (in text)Curtis's Botanical Magazine · 327 · 1796Chrysanthemum × morifolium (Ramat.) Hemsl. misapplied name (WCVP: Chrysanthemum × indicum auct. non Thunb.)Chrysanthemum indicum var.Edwards's Botanical Register · Pl. 4 · 1815to be checkedIndian ChrysanthemumThe American Flora · pl. 1 · 1855Chrysanthemum × morifolium (Ramat.) Hemsl. misapplied name (WCVP: Chrysanthemum × indicum auct. non Thunb.)Pyrethrum sinenseFlora de Filipinas, gran edición (Atlas) · 290 · 1880–1883Chrysanthemum × morifolium (Ramat.) Hemsl. WCVP synonym: Pyrethrum × sinense (Sabine) DC.Chrysanthemum sinense, vars.Favourite Flowers of Garden and Greenhouse · Pl. 148 · 1897Chrysanthemum × morifolium (Ramat.) Hemsl. WCVP synonym: Chrysanthemum × sinense SabineChrysanthemum sinense, var. Mont d'OrFavourite Flowers of Garden and Greenhouse · Pl. 150 · 1897Chrysanthemum × morifolium (Ramat.) Hemsl. WCVP synonym: Chrysanthemum × sinense Sabine

## Further reading

- [Genus Chrysanthemum](https://floreboard.com/en/plants/chrysanthemum/)
- [Chrysanthemums topic library (in Chinese)](https://floreboard.com/chrysanthemum/#names)
- [Flower guide](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/chrysanthemum/)
- [Reference library](https://floreboard.com/en/library/)

## References

- [WCVP · World Checklist of Vascular Plants (via ChecklistBank dataset 2232)](https://www.checklistbank.org/dataset/2232) · accessed 2026-10-20
- [iPlant (Institute of Botany, CAS) · Chrysanthemum × morifolium](https://www.iplant.cn/info/Chrysanthemum%20morifolium)
- [NYBG LuEsther T. Mertz Library · Chrysanthemums: History and Flower Forms](https://libguides.nybg.org/c.php?g=655086)
- [Curtis's Botanical Magazine vol. 10 (1796), text · Project Gutenberg](https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/62172)

Names, places of publication, synonyms and distribution checked against WCVP (2026-10-20); the text follows the cited sources and awaits specialist review.


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<!-- https://floreboard.com/en/plants/hydrangea/ -->

Flora Japonica · Tab. 51 · 1835–1870 · Popp, Jos. Unger · public domain

# Hydrangea Gronov. ex L.

hydrangeas · Hydrangeaceae

- **Accepted name:** Hydrangea Gronov. ex L.
- **First published:** Sp. Pl.: 397 (1753)
- **Family:** Hydrangeaceae
- **Accepted species:** 103 (including 5 natural hybrids)
- **Native range:** 76 TDWG regions, East and South-East Asia and the Americas
- **Common names:** hydrangeas
- **Databases:** [POWO](https://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:30010546-2) · [IPNI](https://www.ipni.org/n/30010546-2) · [WCVP](https://www.checklistbank.org/dataset/2232/taxon/2855579) · [Catalogue of Life](https://www.catalogueoflife.org/data/taxon/L27TC) · [GBIF](https://www.gbif.org/species/2985983)

## Overview

Hydrangea is the type genus of the Hydrangeaceae. Florists mostly use the bigleaf hydrangea, Hydrangea macrophylla, whose heads combine showy sterile flowers, largely made of about four petaloid sepals, with small fertile ones. The Hydrangea japonica of older plates belongs, in WCVP, to another species, the mountain hydrangea H. serrata.

## Classification and naming

WCVP takes a broad view of the genus: Dichroa, Schizophragma, Pileostegia, Decumaria and the other genera in the table below are all sunk into Hydrangea, which is why the species count is higher than in older works. An early botanist founded the genus Hortensia on a mophead plant, which is how “hortensia” became the common name for mopheads; WCVP also treats it as a synonym.

| Genus name | Published in |
| --- | --- |
| × Didrangea J.M.H.Shaw | Hanburyana 5: 47 (2011) |
| Adamia Wall. | Tent. Fl. Napal.: 46 (1826) |
| Broussaisia Gaudich. | Voy. Uranie: 479 (1830) |
| Calyptranthe (Maxim.) Nakai | Bull. Natl. Sci. Mus. Tokyo 31: 52 (1952) |
| Cardiandra Siebold & Zucc. | Fl. Jap. (Lugduni) 1: 119 (1839) |
| Cianitis Reinw. | Syll. Pl. Nov. 2: 68 (1826) |
| Cornidia Ruiz & Pav. | Fl. Peruv. Prodr.: 63 (1794) |
| Decumaria L. | Sp. Pl., ed. 2. App.: 1663 (1763) |
| Deinanthe Maxim. | Mém. Acad. Imp. Sci. Saint Pétersbourg, Sér. 7. 10(16): 2 (1867) |
| Dichroa Lour. | Fl. Cochinch.: 301 (1790) |
| Forsythia Walter | Fl. Carol.: 154 (1788) |
| Heteromalla (Rehder) H.Ohba & S.Akiyama | J. Jap. Bot. 91: 349 (2016) |
| Hortensia Comm. | A.L.de Jussieu, Gen. Pl.: 214 (1789) |
| Hydrangia L. | Gen. Pl., ed. 6.: 222 (1764) |
| Macnemaraea P.Willemet | Ann. Bot. (Usteri) 18: 34 (1796) |
| Pileostegia Hook.f. & Thomson | J. Proc. Linn. Soc., Bot. 2: 57 (1857) |
| Platycrater Siebold & Zucc. | Fl. Jap. (Lugduni) 1: 62 (1837) |
| Sarcostyles C.Presl ex DC. | Prodr. 4: 15 (1830) |
| Schizophragma Siebold & Zucc. | Fl. Jap. (Lugduni) 1: 58 (1837) |

## Distribution

WCVP records the genus as native to 76 TDWG botanical regions and introduced in 28 more.

Native regions (76)

AlabamaArgentina SouthArkansasAssamBoliviaBorneoCambodiaChile CentralChile SouthChina North-CentralChina South-CentralChina SoutheastColombiaCosta RicaDelawareDistrict of ColumbiaEast HimalayaEcuadorEl SalvadorFloridaGeorgiaGuatemalaHainanHawaiiHondurasIllinoisIndianaInner MongoliaJapanJawaKansasKazan-rettoKentuckyKoreaKuril Is.LaosLesser Sunda Is.LouisianaMalayaMarylandMexico CentralMexico GulfMexico NortheastMexico NorthwestMexico SoutheastMexico SouthwestMississippiMissouriMyanmarNansei-shotoNepalNew GuineaNew JerseyNew YorkNicaraguaNorth CarolinaOhioOklahomaPanamáPennsylvaniaPeruPhilippinesQinghaiSakhalinSouth CarolinaSulawesiTaiwanTennesseeThailandTibetVenezuelaVermontVietnamVirginiaWest HimalayaWest Virginia

### Introduced

AlbaniaAustriaAzoresCanary Is.Central European RussiaConnecticutFranceGermanyGreat BritainItalyJuan Fernández Is.MadeiraMaineMassachusettsMauritiusNew BrunswickNew HampshireNew Zealand NorthNew Zealand SouthNova ScotiaOntarioPortugalRéunionRhode I.South European RussiaSpainTrinidad-TobagoTristan da Cunha

## Accepted species

The full list is on https://floreboard.com/en/plants/hydrangea/#species.

## Historic plates

Plates in date order; the printed names are kept as they appear, current names are on the species pages and the topic page.

- [](https://floreboard.com/hydrangea/plates/bm-438.jpg)Hydrangea Hortensis (in text)Curtis's Botanical Magazine · 438 · 1799, Sydenham Edwards
- [](https://floreboard.com/hydrangea/plates/fragmenta-3.jpg)Hortensia opuloidesFragmenta Botanica, figuris coloratis illustrata · T. 3 · 1800–1809,
- [](https://floreboard.com/hydrangea/plates/flora-japonica-51.jpg)Hydrangea AzisaiFlora Japonica · Tab. 51 · 1835–1870, Popp, Jos. Unger
- [](https://floreboard.com/hydrangea/plates/flora-japonica-61.jpg)Hydrangea paniculataFlora Japonica · Tab. 61 · 1840,
- [](https://floreboard.com/hydrangea/plates/fds-16-rosalba.jpg)Hydrangea japonica RosalbaFlore des serres et des jardins de l'Europe · 526 (printed on plate) · 1865–1867,
- [](https://floreboard.com/hydrangea/plates/favourite-flowers-90.jpg)Hydrangea HortensiaFavourite Flowers of Garden and Greenhouse · Pl. 90 · 1897,

## Garden types and colour

Most bigleaf hydrangea cultivars are either mopheads or lacecaps. Flowers turn blue when aluminium is readily available, usually in acidic soil; Mississippi State University Extension gives soil pH 5–5.5 for blue and 6–6.5 for pink, and white cultivars do not change.

## Further reading

- [Hydrangea macrophylla · bigleaf hydrangea](https://floreboard.com/en/plants/hydrangea-macrophylla/)
- [Hydrangeas topic library (in Chinese)](https://floreboard.com/hydrangea/)
- [Flower guide](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/hydrangea/)
- [Reference library](https://floreboard.com/en/library/)

## References

- [WCVP · World Checklist of Vascular Plants (via ChecklistBank dataset 2232)](https://www.checklistbank.org/dataset/2232) · accessed 2026-10-20
- [Trees and Shrubs Online · Hydrangea macrophylla (Sutton 2025)](https://www.treesandshrubsonline.org/articles/hydrangea/hydrangea-macrophylla/)
- [Mississippi State University Extension · How to Change the Color of Hydrangeas](https://extension.msstate.edu/blogs/extension-for-real-life/how-change-the-color-hydrangeas)

Names, places of publication, synonyms and distribution checked against WCVP (2026-10-20); the text follows the cited sources and awaits specialist review.


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<!-- https://floreboard.com/en/plants/hydrangea-macrophylla/ -->

Curtis's Botanical Magazine · 438 · 1799 · Sydenham Edwards · public domain

# Hydrangea macrophylla (Thunb.) Ser.

Bigleaf hydrangea · Hydrangeaceae

- **Accepted name:** Hydrangea macrophylla (Thunb.) Ser.
- **Published (this combination):** A.P.de Candolle, Prodr. 4: 15 (1830)
- **Basionym:** Viburnum macrophyllum Thunb., J.A.Murray (ed.), Syst. Veg., ed. 14.: 295 (1784)
- **Genus:** [Hydrangea](https://floreboard.com/en/plants/hydrangea/) Gronov. ex L. · Hydrangeaceae
- **Common names:** bigleaf hydrangea, Hydrangea
- **Native range:** Japan, Kazan-retto
- **Introduced:** 31 regions
- **Databases:** [POWO](https://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:791637-1) · [IPNI](https://www.ipni.org/n/791637-1) · [WCVP](https://www.checklistbank.org/dataset/2232/taxon/2855720) · [Catalogue of Life](https://www.catalogueoflife.org/data/taxon/3N4D6) · [GBIF](https://www.gbif.org/species/2985994)

## Identification

The bigleaf hydrangea is a deciduous shrub to 3 m with thick leaves 10–15 cm long. The terminal cyme is 10–20 cm across; wild plants carry both sterile flowers, largely made of about four petaloid sepals, and small fertile flowers.

## Names and synonyms

Thunberg first published it in 1784 as Viburnum macrophyllum, in the viburnum genus; Seringe moved it to Hydrangea in 1830, one reason the two plants’ names are still muddled in trade. WCVP lists more than 70 synonyms, including the Hortensia opuloides, Hydrangea hortensis and Hydrangea azisai of the old plates.

| Name | Published in |
| --- | --- |
| Hydrangea macrophylla (Thunb.) Ser. | A.P.de Candolle, Prodr. 4: 15 (1830) |
| Hortensia macrophylla (Thunb.) H.Ohba & S.Akiyama | J. Jap. Bot. 91: 346 (2016) |
| Viburnum macrophyllum Thunb. | J.A.Murray (ed.), Syst. Veg., ed. 14.: 295 (1784) |

76 heterotypic synonyms

| Hortensia japonica J.F.Gmel. | Syst. Nat., ed. 13[bis].: 722 (1791) |
| --- | --- |
| Hortensia macrophylla f. isobue (H.Ohba & S.Akiyama) H.Ohba & S.Akiyama | J. Jap. Bot. 91: 346 (2016) |
| Hortensia macrophylla f. isonotaki (H.Ohba & S.Akiyama) H.Ohba & S.Akiyama | J. Jap. Bot. 91: 346 (2016) |
| Hortensia macrophylla f. normalis (E.H.Wilson) H.Ohba & S.Akiyama | J. Jap. Bot. 91: 346 (2016) |
| Hortensia mutabilis Schneev. | Icon. Pl. Rar. (Haarlem): 36 (1793) |
| Hortensia nigra Carrière | Rev. Hort. (Paris) 52: 180 (1880) |
| Hortensia opuloides Lam. | Encycl. 3: 136 (1789) |
| Hortensia rosea Desf. | Tabl. École Bot.: 115 (1804) |
| Hortensia speciosa Pers. | Syn. Pl. 1: 505 (1805) |
| Hydrangea azisai Siebold | Nova Acta Phys.-Med. Acad. Caes. Leop.-Carol. Nat. Cur. 14(2): 689 (1828) |
| Hydrangea azisai var. foliis-aureovariegatis Siebold & Zucc. | Fl. Jap. (Lugduni) 1: 105 (1839) |
| Hydrangea cyanoclada G.Nicholson | Hand-List Trees Shrubs 1[Polypet.]: 221 (1894) |
| Hydrangea florida Salisb. | Prodr. Stirp. Chap. Allerton: 284 (1796) |
| Hydrangea hortensia Siebold | Nova Acta Phys.-Med. Acad. Caes. Leop.-Carol. Nat. Cur. 14(2): 688 (1828) |
| Hydrangea hortensia f. otaksa (Siebold & Zucc.) Franch. & Sav. | Enum. Pl. Jap. 1: 152 (1873) |
| Hydrangea hortensia f. rosea Bean | Garden (London, 1871-1927) 50: 122 (1896) |
| Hydrangea hortensia f. variegata (E.J.Lowe & W.Howard) G.Nicholson | Ill. Dict. Gard. 2: 163 (1885) |
| Hydrangea hortensia var. azisai (Siebold) A.Gray | Mem. Amer. Acad. Arts 6: 312 (1857) |
| Hydrangea hortensia var. macrosepala (Regel) Rehder | L.H.Bailey, Cycl. Amer. Hort. 2: 785 (1900) |
| Hydrangea hortensia var. maculata (Blume) K.Koch | Hort. Dendrol.: 106 (1853) |
| Hydrangea hortensia var. mariesii Bean | Garden (London, 1871-1927) 54: 390 (1898) |
| Hydrangea hortensia var. otaksa (Siebold & Zucc.) A.Gray | Mem. Amer. Acad. Arts 6: 312 (1857) |
| Hydrangea hortensia var. rosea (Bean) J.H.Veitch | Hort. Veitch.: 368 (1906) |
| Hydrangea hortensis Sm. | Icon. Pict. Pl. Rar. 2: 12 (1792) |
| Hydrangea hortensis var. alba H.B.May | Gard. Chron., ser. 3, 45: 301 (1909) |
| Hydrangea hortensis var. maculata Blume | Bijdr. Fl. Ned. Ind.: 920 (1826) |
| Hydrangea hortensis var. mariesii (Bean) Bean | Trees & Shrubs Brit. Isles 1: 625 (1914) |
| Hydrangea japonica f. hortensia Regel | Gartenflora 15: 290 (1866) |
| Hydrangea japonica fimbriata-macrophylla Jacob-Makoy | Nursery Cat. (L.Jacob-Makoy & Co.) 112: 31 (1868) |
| Hydrangea japonica speciosa Hovey | Nursery Cat. (Hovey & co.) 1882: 35 (1882) |
| Hydrangea japonica var. albovariegatis Van Houtte | Fl. Serres Jard. Eur. 7: 139 (1851) |
| Hydrangea japonica var. coerulescens Regel | Gartenflora 15: 290 (1866) |
| Hydrangea japonica var. foliis-variegatis André | Pl. Feuill. Ornem.: 177 (1866) |
| Hydrangea japonica var. macrosepala Regel | Gartenflora 15: 290 (1866) |
| Hydrangea japonica var. otaksa Regel | Gartenflora 15: 290 (1866) |
| Hydrangea japonica var. plena Regel | Gartenflora 15: 290 (1866) |
| Hydrangea japonica var. variegata (E.J.Lowe & W.Howard) Regel | Gartenflora 15: 290 (1866) |
| Hydrangea japonica variegata E.J.Lowe & W.Howard | Beaut. Leaved Pl.: t. 25 (1860) |
| Hydrangea macrocephala Dippel | Handb. Laubholzk. 3: 322 (1893) |
| Hydrangea macrophylla f. azisai (Siebold) E.H.Wilson | J. Arnold Arbor. 4: 240 (1923) |
| Hydrangea macrophylla f. caesia Nakai | Siebold Hydrang. Kaisetsu: 12 (1938) |
| Hydrangea macrophylla f. hortensia (Regel) Rehder | J. Arnold Arbor. 7: 240 (1926) |
| Hydrangea macrophylla f. isobue H.Ohba & S.Akiyama | Bull. Natl. Mus. Nat. Sci., B. Bot. 40: 144 (2014) |
| Hydrangea macrophylla f. isonotaki H.Ohba & S.Akiyama | Bull. Natl. Mus. Nat. Sci., B. Bot. 40: 144 (2014) |
| Hydrangea macrophylla f. leucantha Makino | Ill. Fl. Nippon: 483 (1940) |
| Hydrangea macrophylla f. macrosepala (Regel) E.H.Wilson | J. Arnold Arbor. 4: 240 (1923) |
| Hydrangea macrophylla f. maculata (Blume) E.H.Wilson | J. Arnold Arbor. 4: 241 (1923) |
| Hydrangea macrophylla f. mandschurica (Dieck) E.H.Wilson | J. Arnold Arbor. 4: 237 (1923) |
| Hydrangea macrophylla f. mariesii (Bean) E.H.Wilson | J. Arnold Arbor. 4: 241 (1923) |
| Hydrangea macrophylla f. normalis (E.H.Wilson) H.Hara | J. Jap. Bot. 30: 277 (1955) |
| Hydrangea macrophylla f. nuda Konta & S.Matsumoto | Bull. Natl. Sci. Mus. Tokyo, B. Bot. 31: 23 (2005) |
| Hydrangea macrophylla f. otaksa (Siebold & Zucc.) E.H.Wilson | J. Arnold Arbor. 4: 237 (1923) |
| Hydrangea macrophylla f. veitchii E.H.Wilson | J. Arnold Arbor. 4: 237 (1923) |
| Hydrangea macrophylla var. hattoriana Kitam. | Acta Phytotax. Geobot. 26: 5 (1974) |
| Hydrangea macrophylla var. hortensis (Sm.) Rehder | Cycl. Amer. Hort. 2: 785 (1900) |
| Hydrangea macrophylla var. normalis E.H.Wilson | J. Arnold Arbor. 4: 234 (1923) |
| Hydrangea macrophylla var. otaksa (Siebold & Zucc.) Honda | Siebold Kenkyū: 546 (1938) |
| Hydrangea mandshurica Dippel | Handb. Laubholzk. 3: 323 (1893) |
| Hydrangea maritima Haw.-Booth | Hydrangea: 38 (1950) |
| Hydrangea mutabilis Steud. | Nomencl. Bot. 1: 416 (1821) |
| Hydrangea nigra Dippel | Handb. Laubholzk. 3: 187 (1893) |
| Hydrangea opuloides (Lam.) K.Koch | Dendrologie 1: 353 (1869) |
| Hydrangea opuloides f. macrosepala (Regel) Dippel | Handb. Laubholzk. 3: 323 (1893) |
| Hydrangea opuloides var. azisai (Siebold) Dippel | Handb. Laubholzk. 3: 322 (1893) |
| Hydrangea opuloides var. hortensia Dippel | Handb. Laubholzk. 3: 322 (1893) |
| Hydrangea opuloides var. japonica C.K.Schneid. | Ill. Handb. Laubholzk. 1: 392 (1905) |
| Hydrangea opuloides var. mandschurica Dieck | Nursery Cat. (Dieck) 1885(Haupt-Kat.): 42 (1885) |
| Hydrangea opuloides var. mariesii (Bean) Rehder | L.H.Bailey, Stand. Cycl. Hort. 3: 1621 (1915) |
| Hydrangea opuloides var. otaksa (Siebold & Zucc.) Dippel | Handb. Laubholzk. 3: 323 (1893) |
| Hydrangea opuloides var. plena Rehder | L.H.Bailey, Stand. Cycl. Hort. 3: 1621 (1915) |
| Hydrangea opuloides var. variegata (E.J.Lowe & W.Howard) Rehder | L.H.Bailey, Stand. Cycl. Hort. 3: 1622 (1915) |
| Hydrangea otaksa Siebold & Zucc. | Fl. Jap. (Lugduni) 1: 105 (1839) |
| Hydrangea sieboldii Dippel | Handb. Laubholzk. 3: 323 (1893) |
| Hydrangea sinensis Dippel | Handb. Laubholzk. 3: 322 (1893) |
| Macnemaraea opulina P.Willemet | Ann. Bot. (Usteri) 18: 34 (1796) |
| Primula mutabilis Lour. | Fl. Cochinch.: 104 (1790) |

## Distribution

WCVP records the species as native to 2 TDWG botanical regions and introduced in 31 more.

JapanKazan-retto

### Introduced

AlbaniaArkansasAssamAzoresBoliviaCanary Is.Central European RussiaChina South-CentralChina SoutheastCosta RicaEast HimalayaEcuadorFranceGermanyGreat BritainItalyJuan Fernández Is.KoreaMadeiraMauritiusMexico SouthwestNew Zealand NorthNew Zealand SouthPanamáPortugalRéunionSpainTrinidad-TobagoTristan da CunhaVenezuelaVietnam

## Historic plates and the names printed on them

Plates carry the name in use at the time. Using the WCVP synonymy and misapplied names, the table maps each printed name to the current species or subspecies.

Printed name · sourceCurrent nameHydrangea Hortensis (in text)Curtis's Botanical Magazine · 438 · 1799Hydrangea macrophylla (Thunb.) Ser. WCVP synonym: Hydrangea hortensis Sm.Hortensia opuloidesFragmenta Botanica, figuris coloratis illustrata · T. 3 · 1800–1809Hydrangea macrophylla (Thunb.) Ser. WCVP synonym: Hortensia opuloides Lam.Hydrangea AzisaiFlora Japonica · Tab. 51 · 1835–1870Hydrangea macrophylla (Thunb.) Ser. WCVP synonym: Hydrangea azisai SieboldHydrangea HortensiaFavourite Flowers of Garden and Greenhouse · Pl. 90 · 1897Hydrangea macrophylla (Thunb.) Ser. WCVP synonym: Hydrangea hortensia Siebold

## Native range and arrival in Europe

Wild bigleaf hydrangeas grow on the Pacific-side peninsulas of central Honshu, the Izu Islands and the Ogasawara Islands. In 1789 Sir Joseph Banks at Kew obtained a mophead now known as ‘Joseph Banks’; within ten years it was “very common” in Britain. Plate 438 of Curtis’s Botanical Magazine (1799) dates from this period.

## Further reading

- [Genus Hydrangea](https://floreboard.com/en/plants/hydrangea/)
- [Hydrangeas topic library (in Chinese)](https://floreboard.com/hydrangea/#flowers)
- [Flower guide](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/hydrangea/)
- [Reference library](https://floreboard.com/en/library/)

## References

- [WCVP · World Checklist of Vascular Plants (via ChecklistBank dataset 2232)](https://www.checklistbank.org/dataset/2232) · accessed 2026-10-20
- [Trees and Shrubs Online · Hydrangea macrophylla (Sutton 2025)](https://www.treesandshrubsonline.org/articles/hydrangea/hydrangea-macrophylla/)
- [iPlant (Institute of Botany, CAS) · Hydrangea macrophylla](https://www.iplant.cn/info/Hydrangea%20macrophylla)

Names, places of publication, synonyms and distribution checked against WCVP (2026-10-20); the text follows the cited sources and awaits specialist review.


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<!-- https://floreboard.com/en/plants/cymbidium/ -->

Curtis's Botanical Magazine · 5126 · 1859 · Walter Hood Fitch · public domain

# Cymbidium Sw.

boat orchids · Orchidaceae

- **Accepted name:** Cymbidium Sw.
- **First published:** Nova Acta Regiae Soc. Sci. Upsal., ser. 2, 6: 70 (1799)
- **Family:** Orchidaceae
- **Accepted species:** 118 (including 26 natural hybrids)
- **Native range:** 37 TDWG regions, tropical and subtropical Asia to northern Australia
- **Common names:** boat orchids
- **Databases:** [POWO](https://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:330383-2) · [IPNI](https://www.ipni.org/n/330383-2) · [WCVP](https://www.checklistbank.org/dataset/2232/taxon/53067) · [Catalogue of Life](https://www.catalogueoflife.org/data/taxon/8VWNG) · [GBIF](https://www.gbif.org/species/2782293)

## Overview

Cymbidium belongs to the orchid family, Orchidaceae, ranging from tropical and subtropical Asia to northern Australia. In horticulture and floristry, it divides into two distinct groups: the traditional terrestrial Chinese cymbidiums (such as C. faberi, C. goeringii, and C. ensifolium), cherished for subtle fragrance and foliage; and the large-flowered Cymbidium hybrids developed from epiphytic and semi-epiphytic wild species, renowned worldwide as festive potted plants and durable cut flowers.

## Classification and naming

Swartz published Cymbidium in 1799. The name derives from the Greek kymbe (boat), referring to the hollowed boat-like lip. WCVP currently treats genera such as Cyperorchis, Imerinaea, and Pachyrhizanthe as synonyms of Cymbidium.

| Genus name | Published in |
| --- | --- |
| × Cyperocymbidium A.D.Hawkes | Orchid Rev. 72: 420 (1964) |
| Arethusantha Finet | Bull. Soc. Bot. France 44: 179 (1897) |
| Cymbidiopsis H.J.Chowdhery | Indian J. Forest. 32: 154 (2009) |
| Cyperorchis Blume | Rumphia 4: 47 (1849) |
| Iridorchis Blume | Coll. Orchid.: 90 (1859) |
| Jensoa Raf. | Fl. Tellur. 4: 38 (1838) |
| Liuguishania Z.J.Liu & J.N.Zhang | J. S. China Agric. Univ. 19(1): 73 (1998) |
| Pachyrhizanthe (Schltr.) Nakai | Bot. Mag. (Tokyo) 45: 109 (1931) |
| Wutongshania Z.J.Liu & J.N.Zhang | J. S. China Agric. Univ. 19(1): 74 (1998) |

## Distribution

WCVP records the genus as native to 37 TDWG botanical regions and introduced in 1 more.

Andaman Is.AssamBangladeshBorneoCambodiaChina North-CentralChina South-CentralChina SoutheastEast HimalayaHainanIndiaJapanJawaKoreaLaosLesser Sunda Is.MalayaMalukuMyanmarNansei-shotoNepalNew GuineaNew South WalesNicobar Is.Northern TerritoryPakistanPhilippinesQueenslandSri LankaSulawesiSumateraTaiwanThailandTibetVietnamWest HimalayaWestern Australia

### Introduced

Hawaii

## Accepted species

The full list is on https://floreboard.com/en/plants/cymbidium/#species.

## Historic plates

Plates in date order; the printed names are kept as they appear, current names are on the species pages and the topic page.

- [](https://floreboard.com/cymbidium/plates/bm-888.jpg)Epidendrum sinenseCurtis's Botanical Magazine · 888 · 1806, Sydenham Edwards
- [](https://floreboard.com/cymbidium/plates/bm-1751.jpg)Cymbidium ensifoliumCurtis's Botanical Magazine · 1751 · 1815, Sydenham Edwards
- [](https://floreboard.com/cymbidium/plates/bm-4844.jpg)Cymbidium giganteumCurtis's Botanical Magazine · 4844 · 1855, Walter Hood Fitch
- [](https://floreboard.com/cymbidium/plates/bm-5126.jpg)Cymbidium eburneumCurtis's Botanical Magazine · 5126 · 1859, Walter Hood Fitch
- [](https://floreboard.com/cymbidium/plates/bm-8312.jpg)Cymbidium insigneCurtis's Botanical Magazine · 8312 · 1910, Matilda Smith

## Horticulture and floristry

Cymbidium hybrids require cooler night temperatures (10–14 °C) in autumn to initiate flower spikes. As cut flowers, they offer robust stems and exceptional vase life of 2–3 weeks in cool conditions. Postharvest handling requires strict protection from ethylene: accidental dislodging of the anther cap triggers rapid ethylene generation and causes swift discoloration and wilting.

## Further reading

- [Cymbidium faberi · Faber’s cymbidium](https://floreboard.com/en/plants/cymbidium-faberi/)
- [Cymbidium hybrids topic library (in Chinese)](https://floreboard.com/cymbidium/)
- [Flower guide](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/orchid/)
- [Reference library](https://floreboard.com/en/library/)

## References

- [WCVP · World Checklist of Vascular Plants (via ChecklistBank dataset 2232)](https://www.checklistbank.org/dataset/2232) · accessed 2026-10-20
- [Kew POWO · Cymbidium: classification and distribution](https://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:330383-2)
- [RHS · How to grow cymbidium orchids](https://www.rhs.org.uk/plants/cymbidium-orchids/how-to-grow-cymbidium-orchids)
- [AOS · Cymbidium Culture](https://www.aos.org/orchid-care/orchid-care-and-culture-sheets/cymbidium-culture-sheet/cymbidium-culture)

Names, places of publication, synonyms and distribution checked against WCVP (2026-10-20); the text follows the cited sources and awaits specialist review.


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<!-- https://floreboard.com/en/plants/cymbidium-faberi/ -->

# Cymbidium faberi Rolfe

Faber’s cymbidium · Orchidaceae

- **Accepted name:** Cymbidium faberi Rolfe
- **First published:** Bull. Misc. Inform. Kew 1896: 198 (1896)
- **Genus:** [Cymbidium](https://floreboard.com/en/plants/cymbidium/) Sw. · Orchidaceae
- **Common names:** Faber’s cymbidium
- **Native range:** China North-Central, China South-Central, China Southeast, East Himalaya, Myanmar, Nepal, Taiwan, Tibet
- **Databases:** [POWO](https://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:625000-1) · [IPNI](https://www.ipni.org/n/625000-1) · [WCVP](https://www.checklistbank.org/dataset/2232/taxon/53168) · [Catalogue of Life](https://www.catalogueoflife.org/data/taxon/336G3) · [GBIF](https://www.gbif.org/species/5305646)

## Identification and cultural history

Cymbidium faberi is one of the celebrated terrestrial orchids of China. Its upright leaves have serrate margins; in spring it produces erect racemes bearing 9–20 or more scented blossoms. Northern Song poet Huang Tingjian famously distinguished it from spring orchid (C. goeringii) in Shu Youfang Ting: “that with one flower per stem and rich fragrance is Lan; that with five to seven flowers per stem is Hui”.

## Nomenclature and synonyms

Rolfe published the species in the Kew Bulletin in 1896, based on collections made by Ernst Faber on Mount Emei in Sichuan, China. WCVP lists synonyms including Cymbidium oiwakense and Cymbidium faberi var. omeiense.

| Name | Published in |
| --- | --- |
| Cymbidium faberi Rolfe | Bull. Misc. Inform. Kew 1896: 198 (1896) |

6 heterotypic synonyms

| Cymbidium cerinum Schltr. | Repert. Spec. Nov. Regni Veg. Beih. 12: 350 (1922) |
| --- | --- |
| Cymbidium fukiense T.C.Yen | Icon. Cymbid. Amoy.: A1 (1964) |
| Cymbidium oiwakense Hayata | Icon. Pl. Formosan. 6: 80 (1916) |
| Cymbidium scabroserrulatum Makino | Bot. Mag. (Tokyo) 16: 154 (1902) |
| Eulophia yunnanensis Rolfe | J. Linn. Soc., Bot. 36: 29 (1903) |
| Semiphajus evrardii Gagnep. | Bull. Mus. Natl. Hist. Nat., sér. 2, 4: 599 (1932) |

## Distribution

WCVP records the species as native to 8 TDWG botanical regions.

China North-CentralChina South-CentralChina SoutheastEast HimalayaMyanmarNepalTaiwanTibet

## Cultivation and ecology

Cymbidium faberi develops deep, fleshy root systems and is traditionally potted in tall, slender orchid pots. The potting medium must be airy and well-draining (such as pumice, bark chunks and coarse humus). It prefers higher light intensity than C. goeringii and requires a cool vernalisation period in winter to bloom properly.

## Further reading

- [Genus Cymbidium](https://floreboard.com/en/plants/cymbidium/)
- [Cymbidium faberi (Chinese orchid) topic library (in Chinese)](https://floreboard.com/huilan/#identity)
- [Flower guide](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/orchid/)
- [Reference library](https://floreboard.com/en/library/)

## References

- [WCVP · World Checklist of Vascular Plants (via ChecklistBank dataset 2232)](https://www.checklistbank.org/dataset/2232) · accessed 2026-10-20
- [iPlant (Institute of Botany, CAS) · Cymbidium faberi](https://www.iplant.cn/info/Cymbidium%20faberi)
- [Huang Tingjian · Shu Youfang Ting (Northern Song, Wikisource)](https://zh.wikisource.org/wiki/%E6%9B%B8%E5%B9%BD%E8%8A%B3%E4%BA%AD)
- [Kew POWO · Cymbidium faberi](https://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:625000-1)
- [AOS · Cymbidium Culture](https://www.aos.org/orchid-care/orchid-care-and-culture-sheets/cymbidium-culture-sheet/cymbidium-culture)

Names, places of publication, synonyms and distribution checked against WCVP (2026-10-20); the text follows the cited sources and awaits specialist review.


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<!-- https://floreboard.com/en/plants/lilium/ -->

Les Liliacées · 199 · 1808 · Pierre-Joseph Redouté · public domain

# Lilium Tourn. ex L.

lilies · Liliaceae

- **Accepted name:** Lilium Tourn. ex L.
- **First published:** Sp. Pl.: 302 (1753)
- **Family:** Liliaceae
- **Accepted species:** 138 (including 14 natural hybrids)
- **Native range:** 129 TDWG regions, temperate Northern Hemisphere to subtropical montane regions, chiefly East Asia
- **Common names:** lilies, Lily
- **Databases:** [POWO](https://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:30009317-2) · [IPNI](https://www.ipni.org/n/30009317-2) · [WCVP](https://www.checklistbank.org/dataset/2232/taxon/280381) · [Catalogue of Life](https://www.catalogueoflife.org/data/taxon/8VYWZ) · [GBIF](https://www.gbif.org/species/2752977)

## Overview

Lilium is the type genus of the lily family, Liliaceae, distributed widely across the temperate Northern Hemisphere and subtropical mountains, with the greatest species richness in East Asia (particularly China and Japan). In international cut flower trade, lilies rank alongside roses, chrysanthemums and carnations as the “big four” commercial cut flowers. Most cut lilies sold today are multi-generational cultivars grouped into Oriental hybrids, Asiatic hybrids, Longiflorum (Easter lily) hybrids, and interspecific Orienpet (OT) and LA crosses.

## Classification and naming

Linnaeus published Lilium in Species Plantarum in 1753. The generic name derives from Latin lilium, corresponding to the Greek leirion for the white Madonna lily. All species are perennial herbs with true scaly bulbs lacking a tunic. Flowers feature six tepals and six stamens with versatile anthers. WCVP currently accepts over 130 species in the genus along with natural hybrids.

| Genus name | Published in |
| --- | --- |
| Lirium Scop. | Fl. Carniol.: 239 (1760) |
| Martagon (Rchb.) Opiz | Seznam: 63 (1852) |
| Martagon Wolf | Gen. Pl.: 84 (1776) |
| Nomocharis Franch. | J. Bot. (Morot) 3: 113 (1889) |

## Distribution

WCVP records the genus as native to 129 TDWG botanical regions and introduced in 37 more.

Native regions (129)

AfghanistanAlabamaAlbaniaAlbertaAltayAmurArizonaArkansasAssamAustriaBaltic StatesBangladeshBelarusBritish ColumbiaBulgariaBuryatiyaCaliforniaCentral European RussiaChina North-CentralChina South-CentralChina SoutheastChitaColoradoConnecticutCorseCzechia-SlovakiaDelawareDistrict of ColumbiaEast Aegean Is.East European RussiaEast HimalayaFloridaFranceGeorgiaGermanyGreeceHungaryIdahoIllinoisIndiaIndianaInner MongoliaIowaIranIrkutskItalyJapanKamchatkaKansasKazakhstanKentuckyKhabarovskKoreaKrasnoyarskKrymKuril Is.LaosLebanon-SyriaLouisianaMaineManchuriaManitobaMarylandMassachusettsMexico NorthwestMichiganMinnesotaMississippiMissouriMongoliaMontanaMyanmarNansei-shotoNebraskaNepalNevadaNew BrunswickNew HampshireNew JerseyNew MexicoNew YorkNorth CarolinaNorth CaucasusNorth DakotaNova ScotiaNW. Balkan Pen.OhioOklahomaOntarioOregonPakistanPalestinePennsylvaniaPhilippinesPolandPortugalPrimoryeQinghaiQuébecRhode I.RomaniaSakhalinSaskatchewanSouth CarolinaSouth DakotaSouth European RussiaSpainSwitzerlandTaiwanTennesseeTexasThailandTibetTranscaucasusTürkiyeTürkiye-in-EuropeTuvaUkraineVermontVietnamVirginiaWashingtonWest HimalayaWest SiberiaWest VirginiaWisconsinWyomingXinjiangYakutiya

### Introduced

AlgeriaArgentina NortheastBelgiumBermudaBrazil SouthBrazil SoutheastCanary Is.Cape ProvincesCosta RicaDenmarkDR CongoFinlandGreat BritainIrelandKenyaKwaZulu-NatalMadeiraMexico CentralMexico SoutheastMexico SouthwestNetherlandsNew South WalesNew Zealand NorthNicaraguaNorfolk Is.North European RussiaNorthern ProvincesNorwayOgasawara-shotoSardegnaSiciliaSwedenTanzaniaTunisiaUtahVictoriaZimbabwe

## Accepted species

The full list is on https://floreboard.com/en/plants/lilium/#species.

## Historic plates

Plates in date order; the printed names are kept as they appear, current names are on the species pages and the topic page.

- [](https://floreboard.com/lily/plates/bm-800.jpg)Lilium tigrinumCurtis's Botanical Magazine · 800 · 1805, Sydenham Edwards
- [](https://floreboard.com/lily/plates/les-liliacees-103.jpg)Lilium superbumLes Liliacées · 103 · 1805, Pierre-Joseph Redouté
- [](https://floreboard.com/lily/plates/les-liliacees-146.jpg)Lilium martagonLes Liliacées · 146 · 1806, Pierre-Joseph Redouté
- [](https://floreboard.com/lily/plates/les-liliacees-199.jpg)Lilium candidumLes Liliacées · 199 · 1808, Pierre-Joseph Redouté
- [](https://floreboard.com/lily/plates/flora-japonica-12.jpg)Lilium longiflorumFlora Japonica · Tab. 12 · 1835,
- [](https://floreboard.com/lily/plates/bm-3785.jpg)Lilium speciosumCurtis's Botanical Magazine · Tab. 3785 · 1840, Walter Hood Fitch

## Horticultural divisions and postharvest physiology

Oriental hybrids are celebrated for grand blossom size, sweet perfume, and expansive form; Asiatic hybrids provide bright, clear hues (yellows, vibrant oranges, scarlets), upright flower carriage, and zero fragrance, suiting scent-sensitive spaces; OT hybrids offer tall, strong stems and extended durability. Professional postharvest handling focuses on early anther removal before dehiscence (preventing stains and conserving energy), stripping immersed lower leaves to stop foul decomposition, and explicitly cautioning cat-owning customers about fatal feline toxicity.

## Further reading

- [Lilies (Lilium) topic library (in Chinese)](https://floreboard.com/lily/)
- [Flower guide](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/lily/)
- [Reference library](https://floreboard.com/en/library/)

## References

- [WCVP · World Checklist of Vascular Plants (via ChecklistBank dataset 2232)](https://www.checklistbank.org/dataset/2232) · accessed 2026-10-20
- [Kew POWO · Lilium: classification and distribution](https://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:30009317-2)
- [RHS · How to grow lilies](https://www.rhs.org.uk/plants/lilies/growing-guide)
- [UC Davis Postharvest Technology Center · Lilies: Recommendations for Maintaining Postharvest Quality](https://postharvest.ucdavis.edu/produce-facts-sheets/lilies)

Names, places of publication, synonyms and distribution checked against WCVP (2026-10-20); the text follows the cited sources and awaits specialist review.


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<!-- https://floreboard.com/en/plants/helianthus/ -->

Hortus Eystettensis · Classis Aestiva, Fol. 70 · 1640 · public domain

# Helianthus L.

sunflowers · Asteraceae

- **Accepted name:** Helianthus L.
- **First published:** Sp. Pl.: 904 (1753)
- **Family:** Asteraceae
- **Accepted species:** 68 (including 12 natural hybrids)
- **Native range:** 63 TDWG regions, North America (the cut-flower sunflower is native to the south-western United States and Mexico)
- **Common names:** sunflowers
- **Databases:** [POWO](https://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:30000729-2) · [IPNI](https://www.ipni.org/n/30000729-2) · [WCVP](https://www.checklistbank.org/dataset/2232/taxon/3133724) · [Catalogue of Life](https://www.catalogueoflife.org/data/taxon/62TKF) · [GBIF](https://www.gbif.org/species/3119134)

## Overview

Helianthus belongs to the daisy family, Asteraceae; Kew gives the native range of the genus as North America. The name combines the Greek words for sun and flower, referring to the large flower heads and their habit of facing the sun (Flora of Iraq).

The florist’s sunflower is the annual Helianthus annuus. WCVP records it as native to the south-western United States (Arizona, California, Nevada) and Mexico, and introduced everywhere else it is grown. Its relative H. tuberosus, the Jerusalem artichoke, is a widely cultivated tuber crop (Flora of Somalia).

## Classification and characters

Linnaeus published the genus in Species Plantarum in 1753. Its members are tall annual or perennial herbs, with the lower leaves opposite and the upper ones often alternate. A “sunflower” is a flower head: the outer ray florets are sterile with yellow rays, the central disc florets are bisexual, tubular and five-lobed; the receptacle bears scales and the involucre has two to four rows of phyllaries. The achenes are somewhat flattened, with a pappus of two early-falling awns or scales (Flora of Somalia, Flora of Iraq).

Older regional floras give “about 50 species”; the number WCVP accepts today is in the table below and includes several natural hybrids.

| Genus name | Published in |
| --- | --- |
| Discomela Raf. | Neogenyton: 3 (1825) |
| Echinomeria Nutt. | Trans. Amer. Philos. Soc., n.s., 7: 356 (1840) |
| Fascicularia Lilja | Skanes Fl. Vilda Odlade: 917 (1870) |
| Harpalium (Cass.) Cass. | G.-F.Cuvier, Dict. Sci. Nat., ed. 2. 38: 17 (1825) |
| Helianthemum Gray | Nat. Arr. Brit. Pl. 2: 445 (1821) |
| Leighia Cass. | G.-F.Cuvier, Dict. Sci. Nat., ed. 2. 25: 435 (1822) |
| Lincecumia Buckley | Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia 13: 458 (1861 publ. 1862) |
| Neactelis Raf. | New Fl. 4: 69 (1838) |

## Distribution

WCVP records the genus as native to 63 TDWG botanical regions and introduced in 139 more.

Native regions (63)

AlabamaAlbertaArizonaArkansasBritish ColumbiaCaliforniaColoradoConnecticutDelawareDistrict of ColumbiaFloridaGeorgiaIdahoIllinoisIndianaIowaKansasKentuckyLouisianaMaineManitobaMarylandMassachusettsMexico CentralMexico NortheastMexico NorthwestMexico SouthwestMichiganMinnesotaMississippiMissouriMontanaNebraskaNevadaNew BrunswickNew HampshireNew JerseyNew MexicoNew YorkNewfoundlandNorth CarolinaNorth DakotaNova ScotiaOhioOklahomaOntarioOregonPennsylvaniaPrince Edward I.QuébecRhode I.SaskatchewanSouth CarolinaSouth DakotaTennesseeTexasUtahVermontVirginiaWashingtonWest VirginiaWisconsinWyoming

### Introduced

Introduced regions (139)

AlaskaAlbaniaAltayAmurArgentina NortheastArgentina NorthwestArgentina SouthAssamAustriaAzoresBahamasBalearesBaltic StatesBangladeshBelarusBelgiumBelizeBoliviaBotswanaBulgariaBuryatiyaCanary Is.Cape ProvincesCaprivi StripCentral European RussiaChile CentralChile NorthChile SouthChina North-CentralChina South-CentralChina SoutheastChitaColombiaCorseCosta RicaCubaCyprusCzechia-SlovakiaDenmarkDominican RepublicEast Aegean Is.East European RussiaEast HimalayaEl SalvadorEswatiniFijiFinlandFranceFree StateGermanyGreat BritainGreeceGuatemalaHainanHaitiHondurasHungaryIndiaInner MongoliaIrelandIrkutskItalyJapanJawaKamchatkaKazakhstanKhabarovskKirgizstanKoreaKrasnoyarskKrymKwaZulu-NatalLaosLebanon-SyriaLesothoLibyaMadeiraMagadanManchuriaMexico GulfMexico SoutheastMoroccoMozambiqueMyanmarNamibiaNepalNetherlandsNew South WalesNew Zealand NorthNew Zealand SouthNiueNorth CaucasusNorth European RussiaNorthern ProvincesNorthern TerritoryNorthwest TerritoriesNorwayNunavutNW. Balkan Pen.PakistanPalestineParaguayPeruPolandPortugalPrimoryeQinghaiQueenslandRomaniaSakhalinSardegnaSiciliaSouth AustraliaSouth European RussiaSpainSwedenSwitzerlandTadzhikistanTaiwanTasmaniaThailandTibetTranscaucasusTrinidad-TobagoTunisiaTürkiyeTürkiye-in-EuropeTurkmenistanTuvaUkraineUruguayUzbekistanVictoriaVietnamWest HimalayaWest SiberiaWestern AustraliaXinjiangYakutiya

## Accepted species

The full list is on https://floreboard.com/en/plants/helianthus/#species.

## Historic plates

Plates in date order; the printed names are kept as they appear, current names are on the species pages and the topic page.

- [](https://floreboard.com/plants/plates/hortus-eystettensis-helianthus.jpg)Flos Solis maiorHortus Eystettensis · Classis Aestiva, Fol. 70 · 1640,
- [](https://floreboard.com/plants/plates/bot-mag-3510.jpg)Helianthus decapetalusCurtis's Botanical Magazine · 3510 · 1836, Joseph Swan
- [](https://floreboard.com/plants/plates/favourite-flowers-helianthus-argophyllus.jpg)Helianthus argophyllusFavourite Flowers of Garden and Greenhouse · Pl. 139 · 1897,

## Cut-flower harvest and handling

Floralife advises harvesting once the ray florets have unfolded, storing at 1–3 °C and 75–85% relative humidity, and expecting 5–14 days in the vase. Sunflowers drink a lot: keep floral foam well soaked or they wilt, and do not handle them by the head, which creases and bruises the rays. Remove the nets before processing.

Sensitivity to ethylene is moderate and varies by variety; exposure makes the ray florets drop. Sunflowers are phototropic, so the neck bends towards the light; correct temperatures in transport and storage, clean buckets and proper hydration reduce this. Yellowing leaves can come from the wrong harvest stage, growing problems or poor storage, so avoid stems with yellow or dried leaves.

## Further reading

- [Flower guide](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/sunflower/)
- [Reference library](https://floreboard.com/en/library/)

## References

- [WCVP · World Checklist of Vascular Plants (via ChecklistBank dataset 2232)](https://www.checklistbank.org/dataset/2232) · accessed 2026-10-24
- [Kew (POWO data on the ColPlanta site) · Helianthus, with the genus accounts from Flora of Somalia and Flora of Iraq](https://colplanta.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:30000729-2/general-information)
- [Floralife · Sunflower care and handling](https://floralife.com/flowers/sunflower/)

Names, places of publication, synonyms and distribution checked against WCVP (2026-10-24); the text follows the cited sources and awaits specialist review.


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<!-- https://floreboard.com/en/plants/dahlia/ -->

Curtis's Botanical Magazine · 762 · 1804 · Sydenham Edwards · public domain

# Dahlia Cav.

dahlias · Asteraceae

- **Accepted name:** Dahlia Cav.
- **First published:** Icon. 1: 56 (1791)
- **Family:** Asteraceae
- **Accepted species:** 43 (including 1 natural hybrids)
- **Native range:** 14 TDWG regions, Mexico to Colombia
- **Common names:** dahlias
- **Databases:** [POWO](https://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:325940-2) · [IPNI](https://www.ipni.org/n/325940-2) · [WCVP](https://www.checklistbank.org/dataset/2232/taxon/3133844) · [Catalogue of Life](https://www.catalogueoflife.org/data/taxon/3ZGZ) · [GBIF](https://www.gbif.org/species/3093023)

## Overview

Dahlia belongs to the daisy family, Asteraceae. Kew gives its native range as Mexico to Colombia, and the RHS likewise says dahlias come from Central America and Mexico. They are tender perennials that survive the winter as underground tubers: the top growth dies back and re-sprouts in spring. They will not survive frost and should stay indoors until temperatures are consistently above 5 °C (RHS).

Flora of Iraq notes that the cultivated forms are “legion”: wild forms have red rays, while cultivation offers a wide range of colours. Flora of Tropical East Africa warns that the names of these popular ornamentals are not authoritative, so garden names often do not match botanical species.

## Classification and characters

The Spanish botanist Cavanilles published the genus in 1791. Flora of Iraq describes the cultivated dahlia as glabrous or nearly so, mostly up to 1.4 m tall, with bipinnate lower leaves of lanceolate to ovate, toothed leaflets, leafy and more or less reflexed phyllaries, and radiate, somewhat nodding flower heads.

Dahlia coccinea, shown in the plate at the top of this page, and Dahlia pinnata are both accepted by WCVP and native to Mexico; D. coccinea extends south to Guatemala, Belize and El Salvador.

| Genus name | Published in |
| --- | --- |
| Georgia Spreng. | Gartenzeitung (Halle) 2: 28 (1804) |

## Distribution

WCVP records the genus as native to 14 TDWG botanical regions and introduced in 43 more.

BelizeColombiaCosta RicaEl SalvadorGuatemalaHondurasMexico CentralMexico GulfMexico NortheastMexico NorthwestMexico SoutheastMexico SouthwestNicaraguaPanamá

### Introduced

Introduced regions (43)

AssamBalearesBaltic StatesBoliviaBulgariaCameroonCook Is.CubaEast HimalayaEcuadorEthiopiaFijiFranceGermanyGreat BritainHungaryIndiaIrelandItalyKazakhstanKrymLeeward Is.MadeiraMyanmarNepalNorwayNW. Balkan Pen.PakistanPeruPolandPortugalPuerto RicoQueenslandRomaniaSpainTadzhikistanTranscaucasusTubuai Is.TurkmenistanUkraineUzbekistanVenezuelaVietnam

## Accepted species

The full list is on https://floreboard.com/en/plants/dahlia/#species.

## Historic plates

Plates in date order; the printed names are kept as they appear, current names are on the species pages and the topic page.

- [](https://floreboard.com/plants/plates/bm-762.jpg)Dahlia coccineaCurtis's Botanical Magazine · 762 · 1804, Sydenham Edwards
- [](https://floreboard.com/plants/plates/paradisus-londinensis-dahlia-coccinea.jpg)Dahlia bidentifoliaThe Paradisus Londinensis · 1805, William Hooker
- [](https://floreboard.com/plants/plates/bot-register-29.jpg)Dahlia glabrataEdwards's Botanical Register · 29 · 1840, Sarah Anne Drake, G. Barclay

## Flower-form groups and cut-flower handling

Gardeners group dahlias by flower form, such as waterlily, pompon and single; RHS Find a Plant marks the group after the cultivar name, for example C for cactus, Bal for ball and Col for collarette. For the best blooms, pinch out the smaller buds behind the large central bud (RHS).

As a cut flower, Floralife advises buying fully open flowers and keeping them at 1–3 °C for only 3–5 days, since longer storage cuts vase life by 20–30%; vase life is 4–10 days and ethylene sensitivity is low. The stems are hollow, counted as “dirty” and hard to hydrate, and wilt easily, so store and ship them in water; give a fresh cut when arranging and change the water with a re-cut every couple of days. They last less long in foam than in a vase, so hydrate them well first. Watch for botrytis and for thrips, which fleck the petals.

## Further reading

- [Flower guide](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/dahlia/)
- [Reference library](https://floreboard.com/en/library/)

## References

- [WCVP · World Checklist of Vascular Plants (via ChecklistBank dataset 2232)](https://www.checklistbank.org/dataset/2232) · accessed 2026-10-24
- [Kew (POWO data on the ColPlanta site) · Dahlia, with notes from Flora of Iraq and Flora of Tropical East Africa](https://colplanta.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:325940-2/general-information)
- [RHS · How to grow dahlias](https://www.rhs.org.uk/plants/dahlia/growing-guide)
- [Floralife · Dahlia care and handling](https://floralife.com/flowers/dahlia/)

Names, places of publication, synonyms and distribution checked against WCVP (2026-10-24); the text follows the cited sources and awaits specialist review.


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<!-- https://floreboard.com/en/plants/zantedeschia/ -->

Curtis's Botanical Magazine · 832 · 1805 · Sydenham Edwards · public domain

# Zantedeschia Spreng.

calla lilies and arum lilies · Araceae

- **Accepted name:** Zantedeschia Spreng.
- **First published:** Syst. Veg., ed. 16. 3: 765 (1826)
- **Family:** Araceae
- **Accepted species:** 10 (including 2 natural hybrids)
- **Native range:** 15 TDWG regions, Africa: Nigeria to Tanzania and southern Africa
- **Common names:** calla lilies and arum lilies, Calla lily
- **Databases:** [POWO](https://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:331310-2) · [IPNI](https://www.ipni.org/n/331310-2) · [WCVP](https://www.checklistbank.org/dataset/2232/taxon/215526) · [Catalogue of Life](https://www.catalogueoflife.org/data/taxon/8W4SW) · [GBIF](https://www.gbif.org/species/2868790)

## Overview

Zantedeschia belongs to the arum family, Araceae, and occurs only in Africa: Kew gives the native range as Nigeria to Tanzania and southern Africa, and the RHS says the plants come from swampy regions of eastern and southern Africa. SANBI points out that the English name arum lily is misleading: it is neither an Arum nor a lily (Lilium).

Florists meet two kinds. The white Z. aethiopica is, according to the RHS, the only hardy species widely available in the UK and a long-standing bridal flower; there are forms such as the pink-spathed ‘Marshmallow’ and green-and-white ‘Green Goddess’ (SANBI). Coloured callas are mainly cultivars of Z. elliottiana and Z. rehmannii, and most will not survive below 5 °C, so they must come indoors before frost (RHS).

## Classification and characters

Sprengel published the name in 1826; it is conserved (nom. cons.). It honours a Professor Zantedeschi, according to SANBI probably the Italian physician and botanist Giovanni Zantedeschi (1773–1846), though this is not certain. The epithet aethiopica does not refer to Ethiopia: in classical times it meant the lands south of Egypt and Libya.

The plants are geophytes with tubers or short rhizomes, and lanceolate to hastate-sagittate leaves that are often spotted; they grow in damp open places in the tropics and subtropics, including seasonally wet ground and stream banks (CATE Araceae). What looks like the flower is the spathe, white, cream, yellow, pink or rosy purple; the true flowers are packed on the central spadix. SANBI notes that the leaves of the white arum have water pores that shed excess water (guttation), which lets the plant grow in wet ground. Flora Zambesiaca gives 8 species, most in South Africa, and SANBI lists 7; the species WCVP accepts today are in the table below.

| Genus name | Published in |
| --- | --- |
| Arodes Heist. ex Kuntze | Revis. Gen. Pl. 2: 739 (1891) |
| Colocasia Link | Diss. Bot.: 77 (1795) |
| Houttinia Neck. | Elem. Bot. 3: 291 (1790) |
| Otosma Raf. | New Fl. 2: 90 (1837) |
| Pseudohomalomena A.D.Hawkes | Madroño 11: 147 (1951) |
| Richardia Kunth | Mém. Mus. Hist. Nat. 4: 437 (1818) |

## Distribution

WCVP records the genus as native to 15 TDWG botanical regions and introduced in 47 more.

AngolaCameroonCape ProvincesDR CongoEswatiniFree StateKwaZulu-NatalLesothoMalawiMozambiqueNigeriaNorthern ProvincesTanzaniaZambiaZimbabwe

### Introduced

Introduced regions (47)

AlbaniaAlgeriaAssamAzoresBermudaBrazil NortheastCaliforniaCanary Is.ColombiaCorseCosta RicaDominican RepublicEast Aegean Is.East HimalayaEcuadorGreat BritainGreeceHawaiiIndiaIrelandItalyMadeiraMexico SouthwestMoroccoNew South WalesNew Zealand NorthNicaraguaNorfolk Is.NW. Balkan Pen.OregonPhilippinesPortugalPuerto RicoRéunionSardegnaSiciliaSociety Is.South AustraliaSpainSt.HelenaTasmaniaTrinidad-TobagoTristan da CunhaTunisiaTürkiyeVictoriaWestern Australia

## Accepted species

The full list is on https://floreboard.com/en/plants/zantedeschia/#species.

## Historic plates

Plates in date order; the printed names are kept as they appear, current names are on the species pages and the topic page.

- [](https://floreboard.com/plants/plates/fragmenta-botanica-32.jpg)Calla æthiopicaFragmenta Botanica, figuris coloratis illustrata · 32 · 1800,
- [](https://floreboard.com/plants/plates/bm-832.jpg)Calla aethiopicaCurtis's Botanical Magazine · 832 · 1805, Sydenham Edwards
- [](https://floreboard.com/plants/plates/american-flora-3-36.jpg)Common CallaThe American Flora · 36 · 1855,
- [](https://floreboard.com/plants/plates/bot-mag-5176.jpg)Richardia albomaculataCurtis's Botanical Magazine · 5176 · 1860, Walter Hood Fitch
- [](https://floreboard.com/plants/plates/favourite-flowers-zantedeschia-aethiopica.jpg)Richardia africanaFavourite Flowers of Garden and Greenhouse · Pl. 295 · 1897,

## Cut-flower harvest and handling

Floralife advises harvesting when the spathe has opened enough to show the spadix; flowers cut too early may not open fully. Store at 1–3 °C and 75–85% relative humidity; vase life is 4–10 days and ethylene sensitivity is low. Handle callas as little as possible, especially the spathes, and hold them only by the stem. When buying, look for pliable stems; stems that snap when bent are past their prime.

Cut stems drip for a while, and the ends can split and curl; some report that a sugar-based flower food reduces this. The sap stains clothing, but the stain only shows after laundering, so cover the stem ends in bouquets and buttonholes. Callas can go in foam but last longer in a vase; watch for botrytis. SANBI notes that raw plant material contains sharp calcium oxalate crystals that make the throat swell if eaten.

## Further reading

- [Flower guide](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/calla/)
- [Reference library](https://floreboard.com/en/library/)

## References

- [WCVP · World Checklist of Vascular Plants (via ChecklistBank dataset 2232)](https://www.checklistbank.org/dataset/2232) · accessed 2026-10-24
- [Kew (POWO data on the ColPlanta site) · Zantedeschia, with notes from CATE Araceae and Flora Zambesiaca](https://colplanta.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:331310-2/general-information)
- [RHS · How to grow zantedeschia](https://www.rhs.org.uk/plants/zantedeschia/growing-guide)
- [SANBI PlantZAfrica · Zantedeschia aethiopica (Alice Aubrey, 2001)](https://pza.sanbi.org/zantedeschia-aethiopica)
- [Floralife · Calla lily care and handling](https://floralife.com/flowers/calla/)

Names, places of publication, synonyms and distribution checked against WCVP (2026-10-24); the text follows the cited sources and awaits specialist review.


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<!-- https://floreboard.com/en/plants/ranunculus/ -->

Favourite Flowers of Garden and Greenhouse · Pl. 6 · 1896 · public domain

# Ranunculus L.

buttercups · Ranunculaceae

- **Accepted name:** Ranunculus L.
- **First published:** Sp. Pl.: 548 (1753)
- **Family:** Ranunculaceae
- **Accepted species:** 1827 (including 40 natural hybrids)
- **Native range:** 268 TDWG regions, temperate and subtropical regions and tropical mountains almost worldwide; the cut-flower Persian buttercup is native from the eastern Mediterranean to Iran
- **Common names:** buttercups
- **Databases:** [POWO](https://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:30002060-2) · [IPNI](https://www.ipni.org/n/30002060-2) · [WCVP](https://www.checklistbank.org/dataset/2232/taxon/2524491) · [Catalogue of Life](https://www.catalogueoflife.org/data/taxon/774N) · [GBIF](https://www.gbif.org/species/3033294)

## Overview

Ranunculus belongs to the buttercup family, Ranunculaceae, and is a very large genus; Kew gives its native range as temperate and subtropical regions and tropical mountains, almost worldwide. Wild buttercups mostly have small yellow or white flowers.

The florist’s ranunculus is Ranunculus asiaticus, the Persian buttercup. WCVP records it as native from the eastern Mediterranean to western Asia: Türkiye, Cyprus, Greece and the East Aegean Islands, Crete, Lebanon–Syria, Palestine, Sinai, Egypt, Libya, Iraq and Iran. The RHS describes its satin-like petals in a wide colour range, suited to pots, bedding and cutting.

## Classification and characters

Linnaeus published the genus in Species Plantarum in 1753. The petals number five to eight or more and are usually yellow or white, sometimes with anthocyanin colours; each has a nectar pit at the base, with or without a scale. The fruit is a cluster of many achenes with a persistent, usually glabrous style that is sometimes hooked (Flora Zambesiaca, Flora of Tropical East Africa).

WCVP takes a broad view of the genus: Ficaria (lesser celandine), Batrachium (water crowfoot) and others are included and appear in the table of generic synonyms below. With accepted species running into the thousands, the list is collapsed by default.

| Genus name | Published in |
| --- | --- |
| Aphanostemma A.St.-Hil. | Fl. Bras. Merid. 1: 12 (1824) |
| Aspidophyllum Ulbr. | Notizbl. Bot. Gart. Berlin-Dahlem 8: 268 (1922) |
| Batrachium (DC.) Gray | Nat. Arr. Brit. Pl. 2: 720 (1821 publ. 1822) |
| Beckwithia Jeps. | Erythea 6: 97 (1898) |
| Buschia Ovcz. | Bot. Zhurn. (Moscow & Leningrad) 25: 339 (1940) |
| Casalea A.St.-Hil. | Fl. Bras. Merid. 1: 8 (1824) |
| Ceratocephala Moench | Methodus: 218 (1794) |
| Coptidium (Prantl) Rydb. | Fl. Rocky Mts.: 302 (1917) |
| Cynomorbium Opiz | Fl. Caslav. 3: 255 (1804) |
| Cyprianthe Spach | Hist. Nat. Vég. 7: 220 (1838) |
| Ficaria Guett. | Hist. Acad. Roy. Sci. (Paris) 1750: 355 (1754) |
| Flammula (Webb ex Spach) Fourr. | Ann. Soc. Linn. Lyon, n.s., 16: 324 (1868) |
| Gampsoceras Steven | Bull. Soc. Imp. Naturalistes Moscou 25(I): 541 (1852) |
| Glossophyllum Fourr. | Ann. Soc. Linn. Lyon, n.s., 16: 325 (1868) |
| Hecatonia Lour. | Fl. Cochinch.: 302 (1790) |
| Hericinia Fourr. | Ann. Soc. Linn. Lyon, n.s., 16: 325 (1868) |
| Ionosmanthus Jord. & Fourr. | Icon. Fl. Eur. 2: 13 (1869) |
| Krapfia DC. | Syst. Nat. 1: 228 (1817) |
| Kumlienia Greene | Bull. Calif. Acad. Sci. 1: 337 (1885) |
| Laccopetalum Ulbr. | Bot. Jahrb. Syst. 37: 404 (1906) |
| Leuconoe Fourr. | Ann. Soc. Linn. Lyon, n.s., 16: 323 (1868) |
| Myosurus L. | Sp. Pl.: 284 (1753) |
| Notophilus Fourr. | Ann. Soc. Linn. Lyon, n.s., 16: 325 (1868) |
| Pachyloma Spach | Hist. Nat. Vég. 7: 194 (1838) |
| Pfundia Opiz | Seznam: 73 (1852) |
| Ranula Fourr. | Ann. Soc. Linn. Lyon, n.s., 16: 324 (1868) |
| Ranunculastrum Fourr. | Ann. Soc. Linn. Lyon, n.s., 16: 324 (1868) |
| Rhopalopodium Ulbr. | Notizbl. Bot. Gart. Berlin-Dahlem 8: 253 (1922) |
| Scotanum Adans. | Fam. Pl. 2: 459 (1763) |
| Stylurus Raf. | Fl. Ludov.: 27 (1817) |
| Thora Hill | Brit. Herb.: 29 (1756) |
| Xerodora Fourr. | Ann. Soc. Linn. Lyon, n.s., 16: 324 (1868) |
| Xiphocoma Steven | Bull. Soc. Imp. Naturalistes Moscou 25(I): 537 (1852) |

## Distribution

WCVP records the genus as native to 268 TDWG botanical regions and introduced in 5 more.

Native regions (268)

AfghanistanAlabamaAlaskaAlbaniaAlbertaAleutian Is.AlgeriaAltayAmsterdam-St.Paul Is.AmurAngolaAntipodean Is.Argentina NortheastArgentina NorthwestArgentina SouthArizonaArkansasAssamAustriaAzoresBalearesBaltic StatesBangladeshBelarusBelgiumBoliviaBorneoBotswanaBrazil NortheastBrazil SouthBrazil SoutheastBrazil West-CentralBritish ColumbiaBulgariaBurundiBuryatiyaCaliforniaCameroonCanary Is.Cape ProvincesCentral African RepublicCentral European RussiaChatham Is.Chile CentralChile SouthChina North-CentralChina South-CentralChina SoutheastChitaColombiaColoradoConnecticutCorseCosta RicaCrozet Is.CubaCyprusCzechia-SlovakiaDelawareDenmarkDistrict of ColumbiaDominican RepublicDR CongoEast Aegean Is.East European RussiaEast HimalayaEcuadorEgyptEl SalvadorEritreaEswatiniEthiopiaFalkland Is.FinlandFloridaFøroyarFranceFree StateGalápagosGeorgiaGermanyGreat BritainGreeceGreenlandGuatemalaGulf of Guinea Is.Gulf StatesHaitiHawaiiHeard-McDonald Is.HondurasHungaryIcelandIdahoIllinoisIndiaIndianaInner MongoliaIowaIranIraqIrelandIrkutskItalyJamaicaJapanJawaJuan Fernández Is.KamchatkaKansasKazakhstanKentuckyKenyaKerguelenKhabarovskKirgizstanKoreaKrasnoyarskKritiKrymKuril Is.KwaZulu-NatalLabradorLaosLebanon-SyriaLesothoLesser Sunda Is.LibyaLouisianaMacquarie Is.MadagascarMadeiraMagadanMaineMalawiMalayaMalukuManchuriaManitobaMarion-Prince Edward Is.MarylandMassachusettsMexican Pacific Is.Mexico CentralMexico GulfMexico NortheastMexico NorthwestMexico SoutheastMexico SouthwestMichiganMinnesotaMississippiMissouriMongoliaMontanaMoroccoMozambiqueMyanmarNamibiaNansei-shotoNebraskaNepalNetherlandsNevadaNew BrunswickNew GuineaNew HampshireNew JerseyNew MexicoNew South WalesNew YorkNew Zealand NorthNew Zealand SouthNewfoundlandNigeriaNorth CarolinaNorth CaucasusNorth DakotaNorth European RussiaNorthern ProvincesNorthwest European RussiaNorthwest TerritoriesNorwayNova ScotiaNunavutNW. Balkan Pen.Ogasawara-shotoOhioOklahomaOmanOntarioOregonPakistanPalestinePanamáParaguayPennsylvaniaPeruPhilippinesPolandPortugalPrimoryePrince Edward I.Puerto RicoQinghaiQuébecQueenslandRéunionRhode I.RomaniaRwandaSakhalinSardegnaSaskatchewanSaudi ArabiaSiciliaSinaiSomaliaSouth AustraliaSouth CarolinaSouth DakotaSouth European RussiaSouth GeorgiaSpainSri LankaSudan-South SudanSulawesiSvalbardSwedenSwitzerlandTadzhikistanTaiwanTanzaniaTasmaniaTennesseeTexasThailandTibetTranscaucasusTristan da CunhaTunisiaTürkiyeTürkiye-in-EuropeTurkmenistanTuvaUgandaUkraineUruguayUtahUzbekistanVenezuelaVermontVictoriaVietnamVirginiaWashingtonWest HimalayaWest SiberiaWest VirginiaWestern AustraliaWisconsinWyomingXinjiangYakutiyaYemenYukonZambiaZimbabwe

### Introduced

BermudaMauritiusNew CaledoniaNorfolk Is.St.Helena

## Accepted species

The full list is on https://floreboard.com/en/plants/ranunculus/#species.

## Historic plates

Plates in date order; the printed names are kept as they appear, current names are on the species pages and the topic page.

- [](https://floreboard.com/plants/plates/bot-mag-8-266.jpg)Ranunculus amplexicaulisCurtis's Botanical Magazine · 266 · 1794,
- [](https://floreboard.com/plants/plates/botanical-cabinet-1610.jpg)Ranunculus montanusThe Botanical Cabinet · 1610 · 1830, George Loddiges
- [](https://floreboard.com/plants/plates/favourite-flowers-6.jpg)Ranunculus asiaticusFavourite Flowers of Garden and Greenhouse · Pl. 6 · 1896,

## Growing and cut-flower handling

The RHS calls the underground parts of ranunculus tubers: soak them for a day, then plant claws downwards, 10 cm apart and covered with about 5 cm of compost. Cut the stems before the flowers are fully open and they should last 10–12 days in a vase.

Commercial stems vary much more: Floralife gives 3–7 days, or 5–7 days if they arrive as buds or tight blooms. Store at 1–3 °C and 75–85% relative humidity. Ranunculus are highly ethylene-sensitive, so ask your supplier to treat them with an ethylene action inhibitor and keep them away from ripening produce. Hydrate them with the protective sleeve on and leave them packed until hydrated; the stems are hollow, brittle and naturally bendy, and are easier to handle upside down. Over-wet blooms are prone to botrytis. They can be used in foam but last longer in a vase.

## Further reading

- [Flower guide](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/ranunculus/)
- [Reference library](https://floreboard.com/en/library/)

## References

- [WCVP · World Checklist of Vascular Plants (via ChecklistBank dataset 2232)](https://www.checklistbank.org/dataset/2232) · accessed 2026-10-24
- [Kew (POWO data on the ColPlanta site) · Ranunculus, with the genus accounts from Flora Zambesiaca and Flora of Tropical East Africa](https://colplanta.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:30002060-2/general-information)
- [RHS · How to grow ranunculus](https://www.rhs.org.uk/plants/ranunculus/growing-guide)
- [Floralife · Ranunculus care and handling](https://floralife.com/flowers/ranunculus/)

Names, places of publication, synonyms and distribution checked against WCVP (2026-10-24); the text follows the cited sources and awaits specialist review.


---

<!-- https://floreboard.com/en/plants/narcissus/ -->

Curtis's Botanical Magazine · 925 · 1806 · Sydenham Edwards · public domain

# Narcissus L.

daffodils · Amaryllidaceae

- **Accepted name:** Narcissus L.
- **First published:** Sp. Pl.: 289 (1753)
- **Family:** Amaryllidaceae
- **Accepted species:** 179 (including 103 natural hybrids)
- **Native range:** 41 TDWG regions, Macaronesia to Afghanistan, and south-east China to Japan
- **Common names:** daffodils, Narcissus
- **Databases:** [POWO](https://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:1558-1) · [IPNI](https://www.ipni.org/n/1558-1) · [WCVP](https://www.checklistbank.org/dataset/2232/taxon/282547) · [Catalogue of Life](https://www.catalogueoflife.org/data/taxon/8VZL3) · [GBIF](https://www.gbif.org/species/2858200)

## Overview

Narcissus belongs to the amaryllis family, Amaryllidaceae, and is one of the most important spring bulbs. Kew gives its native range as Macaronesia (the Atlantic islands such as the Canaries) to Afghanistan, with an outlying branch from south-east China to Japan; the RHS says garden daffodils mainly originate in southern Europe and North Africa, and N. pseudonarcissus is native in Britain.

The Chinese sacred lily, grown for the Lunar New Year, is treated by WCVP as Narcissus tazetta subsp. chinensis, native to south-east China and Japan; N. tazetta itself ranges from the Mediterranean to Central Asia.

## Classification and horticultural divisions

Linnaeus published the genus in Species Plantarum in 1753. A large share of the species WCVP accepts are natural hybrids (names with ×), and former segregate genera such as Ajax, Jonquilla and Corbularia are now synonyms, listed below.

In horticulture, daffodils are divided into 13 groups, or divisions, based mainly on flower form. The RHS notes that Division 7 (Jonquilla and Apodanthus) is highly scented and Division 9 (Poeticus) is usually the last to flower. Planting a range of species and divisions gives flowers to pick from February to early May.

| Genus name | Published in |
| --- | --- |
| × Narcibularia H.R.Wehrh. | Gartenstauden 1: 204 (1929) |
| Ajax Salisb. ex Haw. | Suppl. Pl. Succ.: 111 (1819) |
| Argenope Salisb. | Gen. Pl.: 102 (1866) |
| Assaracus Haw. | Monogr. Narciss.: 4 (1831) |
| Aurelia J.Gay | Ann. Sci. Nat., Bot., sér. 4, 10: 95 (1858) |
| Autogenes Raf. | Fl. Tellur. 4: 20 (1838) |
| Braxireon Raf. | Fl. Tellur. 4: 23 (1836) |
| Calathinus Raf. | Fl. Tellur. 4: 21 (1838) |
| Carregnoa Boiss. | Voy. Bot. Espagne 2: 605 (1842) |
| Chione Salisb. | Gen. Pl.: 100 (1866) |
| Chloraster Haw. | Philos. Mag. J. 63: 103 (1824) |
| Codiaminum Raf. | Fl. Tellur. 4: 21 (1838) |
| Corbularia Salisb. ex Haw. | Suppl. Pl. Succ.: 120 (1819) |
| Cydenis Salisb. | Gen. Pl.: 99 (1866) |
| Diomedes Haw. | Philos. Mag. J. 62: 440 (1823) |
| Ganymedes Salisb. ex Haw. | Suppl. Pl. Succ.: 130 (1819) |
| Gymnoterpe Salisb. | Gen. Pl.: 108 (1866) |
| Helena Haw. | Monogr. Narciss.: 13 (1831) |
| Hermione Salisb. ex Haw. | Suppl. Pl. Succ.: 137 (1819) |
| Illus Haw. | Monogr. Narciss.: 4 (1831) |
| Jonquilla Haw. | Monogr. Narciss.: 7 (1831) |
| Moskerion Raf. | Fl. Tellur. 4: 21 (1838) |
| Oileus Haw. | Monogr. Narciss.: 4 (1831) |
| Panza Salisb. | Gen. Pl.: 99 (1866) |
| Patrocles Salisb. | Gen. Pl.: 100 (1866) |
| Philogyne Salisb. | Trans. Hort. Soc. London 1: 355 (1812) |
| Phylogyne Salisb. ex Haw. | Suppl. Pl. Succ.: 132 (1819) |
| Plateana Salisb. | Gen. Pl.: 100 (1866) |
| Prasiteles Salisb. | Gen. Pl.: 102 (1866) |
| Queltia Salisb. ex Haw. | Syn. Pl. Succ. 1: 328 (1812) |
| Schisanthes Haw. | Suppl. Pl. Succ.: 128 (1819) |
| Stephanophorum Dulac | Fl. Hautes-Pyrénées: 133 (1867) |
| Tapeinaegle Herb. | Edwards's Bot. Reg. 33: t. 22, f. 4 (1847) |
| Tapeinanthus Herb. | Amaryllidaceae: 190 (1837) |
| Tityrus Salisb. | Gen. Pl.: 101 (1866) |
| Tros Haw. | Monogr. Narciss.: 5 (1831) |
| Veniera Salisb. | Gen. Pl.: 101 (1866) |

## Distribution

WCVP records the genus as native to 41 TDWG botanical regions and introduced in 61 more.

Native regions (41)

AfghanistanAlbaniaAlgeriaAustriaBalearesBelgiumCanary Is.China SoutheastCorseCyprusEast Aegean Is.EgyptFranceGermanyGreat BritainGreeceHungaryIranIraqItalyJapanKritiLebanon-SyriaLibyaMoroccoNetherlandsNW. Balkan Pen.PakistanPalestinePortugalRomaniaSardegnaSiciliaSinaiSpainSwitzerlandTunisiaTürkiyeTurkmenistanUkraineUzbekistan

### Introduced

Introduced regions (61)

AlabamaArkansasAzoresBaltic StatesBermudaBritish ColumbiaBulgariaCaliforniaCentral European RussiaConnecticutCzechia-SlovakiaFalkland Is.FloridaGeorgiaIllinoisIndianaIrelandKentuckyKoreaKuril Is.LouisianaMadeiraMaineMarylandMassachusettsMexico CentralMichiganMississippiMissouriNew BrunswickNew JerseyNew South WalesNew YorkNew Zealand NorthNew Zealand SouthNewfoundlandNorfolk Is.North CarolinaOhioOntarioOregonPennsylvaniaQuébecRhode I.South AustraliaSouth CarolinaTadzhikistanTasmaniaTennesseeTexasTranscaucasusTürkiye-in-EuropeUtahVermontVirginiaWashingtonWest HimalayaWest SiberiaWest VirginiaWestern AustraliaWisconsin

## Accepted species

The full list is on https://floreboard.com/en/plants/narcissus/#species.

## Historic plates

Plates in date order; the printed names are kept as they appear, current names are on the species pages and the topic page.

- [](https://floreboard.com/plants/plates/bot-mag-1-15.jpg)Narcissus jonquillaCurtis's Botanical Magazine · 15 · 1787,
- [](https://floreboard.com/plants/plates/bot-mag-1-6.jpg)Narcissus minorCurtis's Botanical Magazine · 6 · 1787,
- [](https://floreboard.com/plants/plates/bm-925.jpg)Narcissus TazettaCurtis's Botanical Magazine · 925 · 1806, Sydenham Edwards
- [](https://floreboard.com/plants/plates/favourite-flowers-narcissus-pseudonarcissus.jpg)N. pseudo-narcissus, Narcissus jonquillaFavourite Flowers of Garden and Greenhouse · Pl. 259 · 1897,
- [](https://floreboard.com/plants/plates/favourite-flowers-narcissus-tazetta.jpg)Narcissus tazettaFavourite Flowers of Garden and Greenhouse · Pl. 260 · 1897,

## Cut-flower handling and safety

Floralife advises buying at the “pencil” stage (bud pointing straight up) or the “gooseneck” stage (bud just bending), storing at 1–3 °C and 75–85% relative humidity; vase life is 5–7 days, ethylene sensitivity is low and post-harvest disease is rare. Buds stored too long may fail to open.

Cut daffodils release a substance that harms other flowers, so Floralife advises not mixing them with other flowers and keeping them in a separate bucket. Some publications recommend hydrating them alone for six hours or more before mixing; Floralife notes it has not confirmed this practice. The stems are soft, so take care with foam. The ASPCA lists daffodils as toxic to dogs, cats and horses: the toxic principles are lycorine and other alkaloids, the bulbs are the most poisonous part, and eating them causes vomiting, salivation and diarrhoea, with convulsions, low blood pressure, tremors and heart arrhythmias after large amounts.

## Further reading

- [Flower guide](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/narcissus/)
- [Reference library](https://floreboard.com/en/library/)

## References

- [WCVP · World Checklist of Vascular Plants (via ChecklistBank dataset 2232)](https://www.checklistbank.org/dataset/2232) · accessed 2026-10-24
- [Kew (POWO data on the ColPlanta site) · Narcissus native range](https://colplanta.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:1558-1/general-information)
- [RHS · How to grow daffodils](https://www.rhs.org.uk/plants/daffodils/growing-guide)
- [Floralife · Daffodil care and handling](https://floralife.com/flowers/daffodil/)
- [ASPCA Animal Poison Control · Daffodil](https://www.aspca.org/pet-care/animal-poison-control/toxic-and-non-toxic-plants/daffodil)

Names, places of publication, synonyms and distribution checked against WCVP (2026-10-24); the text follows the cited sources and awaits specialist review.


---

<!-- https://floreboard.com/en/plants/alstroemeria/ -->

Curtis's Botanical Magazine · 139 · 1790 · public domain

# Alstroemeria L.

alstroemerias (Peruvian lilies) · Alstroemeriaceae

- **Accepted name:** Alstroemeria L.
- **First published:** Pl. Alströmeria: 8 (1762)
- **Family:** Alstroemeriaceae
- **Accepted species:** 138 (including 6 natural hybrids)
- **Native range:** 16 TDWG regions, South America: southern Venezuela to the far south of the continent
- **Common names:** alstroemerias (Peruvian lilies), Alstroemeria
- **Databases:** [POWO](https://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:326331-2) · [IPNI](https://www.ipni.org/n/326331-2) · [WCVP](https://www.checklistbank.org/dataset/2232/taxon/298175) · [Catalogue of Life](https://www.catalogueoflife.org/data/taxon/8VTMQ) · [GBIF](https://www.gbif.org/species/2753642)

## Overview

Alstroemeria belongs to its own family, Alstroemeriaceae; Kew gives its native range as southern Venezuela to the far south of South America. The RHS notes that they come from South America, hence the name Peruvian lily, though they are related to neither lilies nor daffodils.

They are fleshy-rooted herbaceous perennials that grow from bulb-like tubers, die back in winter and regrow in spring, and are generally hardy in the UK (RHS). WCVP records A. aurea as native to central and southern Chile and southern Argentina, A. pelegrina (the plant in the plate above) only to central Chile, and A. psittacina to Brazil, Paraguay and northern Argentina.

## Classification and naming

Linnaeus published the genus in 1762 in Planta Alströmeria (cited by WCVP as Pl. Alströmeria: 8). Segregate genera such as Ligtu and Lilavia are now included and appear as synonyms below; a few of the species WCVP accepts are natural hybrids (names with ×).

| Genus name | Published in |
| --- | --- |
| Ligtu Adans. | Fam. Pl. 2: 20 (1763) |
| Lilavia Raf. | Fl. Tellur. 4: 35 (1838) |
| Priopetalon Raf. | Fl. Tellur. 4: 34 (1838) |
| Schickendantzia Pax | Bot. Jahrb. Syst. 11: 322 (1889) |
| Taltalia Ehr.Bayer | Sendtnera 5: 7 (1998) |

## Distribution

WCVP records the genus as native to 16 TDWG botanical regions and introduced in 16 more.

Argentina NortheastArgentina NorthwestArgentina SouthBoliviaBrazil NorthBrazil NortheastBrazil SouthBrazil SoutheastBrazil West-CentralChile CentralChile NorthChile SouthParaguayPeruUruguayVenezuela

### Introduced

AlabamaCanary Is.FloridaFranceGeorgiaGreat BritainLouisianaMadeiraMexico SouthwestMississippiNew South WalesNew Zealand NorthNew Zealand SouthNorfolk Is.TasmaniaVictoria

## Accepted species

The full list is on https://floreboard.com/en/plants/alstroemeria/#species.

## Historic plates

Plates in date order; the printed names are kept as they appear, current names are on the species pages and the topic page.

- [](https://floreboard.com/plants/plates/bm-139.jpg)Alstroemeria PelegrinaCurtis's Botanical Magazine · 139 · 1790,
- [](https://floreboard.com/plants/plates/bot-mag-57-3033.jpg)Alstroemeria psittacinaCurtis's Botanical Magazine · 3033 · 1830, William Jackson Hooker, Joseph Swan
- [](https://floreboard.com/plants/plates/bot-mag-58-3040.jpg)Alstroemeria pallidaCurtis's Botanical Magazine · 3040 · 1831, Robert Kaye Greville, Joseph Swan
- [](https://floreboard.com/plants/plates/bot-mag-3350.jpg)Alstroemeria aureaCurtis's Botanical Magazine · 3350 · 1834, Mrs James McNab, Joseph Swan

## Picking and cut-flower handling

The RHS explains that garden alstroemerias are pulled, not cut: grasp the stem low down and give a quick upward tug, which takes out part of the stem below ground and prompts a new bud; in the first summer after planting, though, the stalks are best cut. They are long-lived cut flowers, staying fresh for about two weeks in a vase.

Floralife advises harvesting when at least one flower per stem is open and its petals are beginning to reflex, with no leaf yellowing and strong stems. Store at 1–3 °C and 75–85% relative humidity; vase life is 7–14 days. Most varieties are ethylene-sensitive, showing wilting, petal drop, water-soaked petals and yellowing leaves, and an ethylene action inhibitor prevents flower and petal drop. The leaves yellow long before the flowers fade, especially in foam, so stripping them is often advisable, or a conditioning product can prevent it. The stems are soft and easily damaged in foam; anti-pathogen transport paper helps in storage and shipping.

## Further reading

- [Flower guide](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/alstroemeria/)
- [Reference library](https://floreboard.com/en/library/)

## References

- [WCVP · World Checklist of Vascular Plants (via ChecklistBank dataset 2232)](https://www.checklistbank.org/dataset/2232) · accessed 2026-10-24
- [Kew (POWO data on the ColPlanta site) · Alstroemeria native range](https://colplanta.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:326331-2/general-information)
- [RHS · How to grow alstroemerias](https://www.rhs.org.uk/plants/alstroemeria/growing-guide)
- [Floralife · Alstroemeria care and handling](https://floralife.com/flowers/alstroemeria/)

Names, places of publication, synonyms and distribution checked against WCVP (2026-10-24); the text follows the cited sources and awaits specialist review.


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<!-- https://floreboard.com/en/plants/dendrobium/ -->

Sertum Orchidaceum · Pl. 3 · 1837 · Sarah Anne Drake, Maxim Gauci · public domain

# Dendrobium Sw.

dendrobium orchids · Orchidaceae

- **Accepted name:** Dendrobium Sw.
- **First published:** Nova Acta Regiae Soc. Sci. Upsal., ser. 2, 6: 82 (1799)
- **Family:** Orchidaceae
- **Accepted species:** 1623 (including 20 natural hybrids)
- **Native range:** 59 TDWG regions, tropical Asia to the western Pacific: from the Himalaya, China and Japan through South-East Asia to New Guinea, Australia and New Zealand
- **Common names:** dendrobium orchids
- **Databases:** [POWO](https://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:325886-2) · [IPNI](https://www.ipni.org/n/325886-2) · [WCVP](https://www.checklistbank.org/dataset/2232/taxon/56967) · [Catalogue of Life](https://www.catalogueoflife.org/data/taxon/8VWT5) · [GBIF](https://www.gbif.org/species/2821327)

## Overview

The AOS describes Dendrobium as the second-largest genus in the orchid family, with more than 1,000 species divided into sections and subsections. WCVP records a native range from the Himalaya, India, China and Japan through Indochina and the Malay Archipelago to New Guinea, eastern Australia, New Zealand and the Pacific islands.

The dendrobiums sold by florists are mostly what the AOS calls phalaenopsis-type and semi-antelope hybrids: evergreen plants with sprays of vividly coloured, long-lasting flowers. The plate above is D. nobile from Lindley’s Sertum Orchidaceum, plate 3.

## Classification and naming

The Swedish botanist Swartz published the genus in 1799. WCVP takes a very broad view of it: segregate genera such as Cadetia and Flickingeria are sunk back into Dendrobium, giving dozens of generic synonyms (listed below); with more than a thousand accepted species, the list is collapsed by default. The medicinal D. officinale also belongs here; WCVP records it as native to southern China, Taiwan, southern Japan and Vietnam.

| Genus name | Published in |
| --- | --- |
| × Dockrilobium J.M.H.Shaw | Orchid Rev. 110(1247, Suppl.): 83 (2002) |
| × Vappaculum M.A.Clem. & D.L.Jones | Orchadian 13: 492 (2002) |
| Abaxianthus M.A.Clem. & D.L.Jones | Orchadian 13: 485 (2002) |
| Aclinia Griff. | Not. Pl. Asiat. 3: 320 (1851) |
| Amblyanthe Rauschert | Feddes Repert. 94: 436 (1983) |
| Amblyanthus (Schltr.) Brieger | F.R.R.Schlechter, Orchideen Beschreib. Kult. Zücht., ed. 3, 1(11-12): 686 (1981) |
| Anisopetala (Kraenzl.) M.A.Clem. | Telopea 10: 283 (2003) |
| Aporopsis (Schltr.) M.A.Clem. & D.L.Jones | Orchadian 13: 485 (2002) |
| Aporum Blume | Bijdr. Fl. Ned. Ind.: 334 (1825) |
| Asarum Archila | Revista Guatemalensis 18(1): 31 (2015 publ. 2014) |
| Australorchis Brieger | F.R.R.Schlechter, Orchideen Beschreib. Kult. Zücht., ed. 3, 1(11-12): 741 (1981) |
| Bolbodium Brieger | F.R.R.Schlechter, Orchideen Beschreib. Kult. Zücht., ed. 3, 1(11-12): 721 (1981) |
| Bouletia M.A.Clem. & D.L.Jones | Orchadian 13: 485 (2002) |
| Cadetia Gaudich. | Voy. Uranie: 422 (1829) |
| Callista Lour. | Fl. Cochinch.: 519 (1790) |
| Cannaeorchis M.A.Clem. & D.L.Jones | Lasianthera 1: 132 (1997 publ. 1998) |
| Cepobaculum M.A.Clem. & D.L.Jones | Orchadian 13: 486 (2002) |
| Ceraia Lour. | Fl. Cochinch.: 518 (1790) |
| Ceratobium (Lindl.) M.A.Clem. & D.L.Jones | Orchadian 13: 486 (2002) |
| Chromatotriccum M.A.Clem. & D.L.Jones | Orchadian 13: 493 (2002) |
| Coelandria Fitzg. | Austral. Orch. 1(7): t. 2 (1882) |
| Conostalix (Kraenzl.) Brieger | F.R.R.Schlechter, Orchideen Beschreib. Kult. Zücht., ed. 3, 1(11-12): 659 (1981) |
| Davejonesia M.A.Clem. | Orchadian 13: 487 (2002) |
| Dendrobates M.A.Clem. & D.L.Jones | Orchadian 13: 487 (2002) |
| Dendrocoryne (Lindl.) Brieger | F.R.R.Schlechter, Orchideen Beschreib. Kult. Zücht., ed. 3, 1(11-12): 724 (1981) |
| Desmotrichum Blume | Bijdr. Fl. Ned. Ind.: 329 (1825) |
| Dichopus Blume | Mus. Bot. 2: 176 (1856) |
| Diplocaulobium (Rchb.f.) Kraenzl. | H.G.A.Engler (ed.), Pflanzenr., IV, 50 II B 21: 331 (1910) |
| Distichorchis M.A.Clem. & D.L.Jones | Orchadian 13: 487 (2002) |
| Ditulima Raf. | Fl. Tellur. 4: 41 (1838) |
| Dockrillia Brieger | F.R.R.Schlechter, Orchideen Beschreib. Kult. Zücht., ed. 3, 1(11-12): 745 (1981) |
| Dolichocentrum (Schltr.) Brieger | F.R.R.Schlechter, Orchideen Beschreib. Kult. Zücht., ed. 3, 1(11-12): 659 (1981) |
| Durabaculum M.A.Clem. & D.L.Jones | Orchadian 13: 487 (2002) |
| Eleutheroglossum (Schltr.) M.A.Clem. & D.L.Jones | Orchadian 13: 489 (2002) |
| Endeisa Raf. | Fl. Tellur. 2: 51 (1837) |
| Ephemerantha P.F.Hunt & Summerh. | Taxon 10: 102 (1961) |
| Epigeneium Gagnep. | Bull. Mus. Natl. Hist. Nat., sér. 2, 4: 593 (1932) |
| Eriopexis (Schltr.) Brieger | F.R.R.Schlechter, Orchideen Beschreib. Kult. Zücht., ed. 3, 1(11-12): 656 (1981) |
| Euphlebium (Kraenzl.) Brieger | F.R.R.Schlechter, Orchideen Beschreib. Kult. Zücht., ed. 3, 1(11-12): 722 (1981) |
| Eurycaulis M.A.Clem. & D.L.Jones | Orchadian 13: 490 (2002) |
| Exochanthus M.A.Clem. & D.L.Jones | Orchadian 13: 496 (2002) |
| Flickingeria A.D.Hawkes | Orchid Weekly 2: 451 (1961) |
| Froscula Raf. | Fl. Tellur. 4: 44 (1838) |
| Gersinia Néraud | C.Gaudichaud-Beaupré, Voy. Uranie: 27 (1826) |
| Goldschmidtia Dammer | Orchis 4: 86 (1910) |
| Grastidium Blume | Bijdr. Fl. Ned. Ind.: 333 (1825) |
| Herpetophytum (Schltr.) Brieger | F.R.R.Schlechter, Orchideen Beschreib. Kult. Zücht., ed. 3, 1(11-12): 660 (1981) |
| Hibiscorchis Archila & Vinc.Bertolini | Revista Guatemalensis 18(1): 12 (2015 publ. 2014) |
| Inobulbon Schltr. & Kraenzl. | H.G.A.Engler (ed.), Pflanzenr., IV, 50(Heft 45): 316 (1910) |
| Keranthus Lour. ex Endl. | Gen. Pl. Secund. Ord. Nat.: 193 (1836) |
| Kinetochilus (Schltr.) Brieger | F.R.R.Schlechter, Orchideen Beschreib. Kult. Zücht., ed. 3, 1(11-12): 686 (1981) |
| Latouria Blume | Rumphia 4: 41 (1849) |
| Latourorchis Brieger | F.R.R.Schlechter, Orchideen Beschreib. Kult. Zücht., ed. 3, 1(11-12): 727 (1981) |
| Leioanthum M.A.Clem. & D.L.Jones | Orchadian 13: 490 (2002) |
| Maccraithea M.A.Clem. & D.L.Jones | Orchadian 13: 496 (2002) |
| Macrostomium Blume | Bijdr. Fl. Ned. Ind.: 335 (1825) |
| Microphytanthe (Schltr.) Brieger | F.R.R.Schlechter, Orchideen Beschreib. Kult. Zücht., ed. 3, 1(11-12): 742 (1981) |
| Monanthos (Schltr.) Brieger | F.R.R.Schlechter, Orchideen Beschreib. Kult. Zücht., ed. 3, 1(11-12): 660 (1981) |
| Onychium Blume | Bijdr. Fl. Ned. Ind.: 323 (1825) |
| Ormostema Raf. | Fl. Tellur. 4: 38 (1838) |
| Orthoglottis Breda | Gen. Sp. Orchid. Asclep. 4: t. 20 (1830) |
| Oxyglossellum M.A.Clem. & D.L.Jones | Orchadian 13: 490 (2002) |
| Pedilonum Blume | Bijdr. Fl. Ned. Ind.: 320 (1825) |
| Pierardia Raf. | Fl. Tellur. 4: 41 (1838) |
| Sarcocadetia (Schltr.) M.A.Clem. & D.L.Jones | Orchadian 13: 490 (2002) |
| Sayeria Kraenzl. | Oesterr. Bot. Z. 44: 298 (1894) |
| Schismoceras C.Presl | Reliq. Haenk. 1: 96 (1827) |
| Stachyobium Rchb.f. | Gard. Chron. 1869: 785 (1869) |
| Stelbophyllum D.L.Jones & M.A.Clem. | Orchadian 13: 490 (2002) |
| Stilbophyllum D.L.Jones & M.A.Clem. | Orchadian 13: 490 (2002) |
| Tetrabaculum M.A.Clem. & D.L.Jones | Orchadian 13: 490 (2002) |
| Tetrodon (Kraenzl.) M.A.Clem. & D.L.Jones | Orchadian 12: 310 (1998) |
| Thelychiton Endl. | Prodr. Fl. Norfolk.: 32 (1833) |
| Thicuania Raf. | Fl. Tellur. 4: 47 (1838) |
| Trachyrhizum (Schltr.) Brieger | F.R.R.Schlechter, Orchideen Beschreib. Kult. Zücht., ed. 3, 1(11-12): 687 (1981) |
| Tropilis Raf. | Fl. Tellur. 2: 95 (1837) |
| Vappodes M.A.Clem. & D.L.Jones | Orchadian 13: 492 (2002) |
| Winika M.A.Clem., D.L.Jones & Molloy | Orchadian 12: 214 (1997) |

## Distribution

WCVP records the genus as native to 59 TDWG botanical regions and introduced in 7 more.

Native regions (59)

Andaman Is.AssamBangladeshBismarck ArchipelagoBorneoCambodiaCaroline Is.China North-CentralChina South-CentralChina SoutheastChristmas I.Cook Is.East HimalayaFijiHainanIndiaJapanJawaKermadec Is.KoreaLaosLesser Sunda Is.MalayaMaldivesMalukuMarianasMyanmarNansei-shotoNepalNew CaledoniaNew GuineaNew South WalesNew Zealand NorthNew Zealand SouthNicobar Is.NiueNorfolk Is.Northern TerritoryPhilippinesQueenslandSamoaSanta Cruz Is.Society Is.Solomon Is.Sri LankaSulawesiSumateraTaiwanTasmaniaThailandTibetTongaTubuai Is.VanuatuVictoriaVietnamWallis-Futuna Is.West HimalayaWestern Australia

### Introduced

CubaHawaiiJamaicaLeeward Is.Puerto RicoSeychellesTrinidad-Tobago

## Accepted species

The full list is on https://floreboard.com/en/plants/dendrobium/#species.

## Historic plates

Plates in date order; the printed names are kept as they appear, current names are on the species pages and the topic page.

- [](https://floreboard.com/plants/plates/roxburgh-coromandel-41.jpg)Limodorum aphyllumPlants of the Coast of Coromandel · 41 · 1795,
- [](https://floreboard.com/plants/plates/sertum-3.jpg)Dendrobium nobileSertum Orchidaceum · Pl. 3 · 1837, Sarah Anne Drake, Maxim Gauci
- [](https://floreboard.com/plants/plates/illustration-horticole-015.jpg)Dendrobium fimbriatum var. OculatumL'Illustration horticole · 015 · 1854, J. Vandamme, C. Severeyns
- [](https://floreboard.com/plants/plates/illustration-horticole-145.jpg)Dendrobium DevonianumL'Illustration horticole · 145 · 1857, J. Vandamme, L. Stroobant

## Growing and cut-flower handling

For phalaenopsis-type and semi-antelope plants, the AOS advises direct filtered sun as essential for flowering, with 30–70% shade at midday; a temperature range of 10–32 °C (50–90 °F); and watering thoroughly, then letting the medium dry before watering again, generally about twice a week.

As a cut flower, Floralife advises buying sprays with at least two open flowers, or fully open single blooms. Dendrobiums are chilling-sensitive: store them at 13–18 °C and 75–85% relative humidity; vase life is 14 days or more. They are the least ethylene-sensitive orchids, but some varieties still drop buds and show transparent petals after exposure, and water stress causes early flower drop.

## Further reading

- [Flower guide](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/dendrobium/)
- [Reference library](https://floreboard.com/en/library/)

## References

- [WCVP · World Checklist of Vascular Plants (via ChecklistBank dataset 2232)](https://www.checklistbank.org/dataset/2232) · accessed 2026-10-24
- [American Orchid Society · Dendrobium Culture: Phalaenopsis and Semi-Antelope types (Bob Davidson, AOS Bulletin, October 1993)](https://www.aos.org/explore-orchids/dendrobium-alliance/dendrobium-culture-phalaenopsis-and-semi-antelope-types)
- [Floralife · Orchid (Dendrobium) care and handling](https://floralife.com/flowers/orchid-dendrobium/)

Names, places of publication, synonyms and distribution checked against WCVP (2026-10-24); the text follows the cited sources and awaits specialist review.


---

<!-- https://floreboard.com/en/plants/oncidium/ -->

Reichenbachia: Orchids Illustrated and Described · Tab. 1 · 1888 · Henry George Moon, Joseph Mansell · public domain

# Oncidium Sw.

oncidiums · Orchidaceae

- **Accepted name:** Oncidium Sw.
- **First published:** Kongl. Vetensk. Acad. Nya Handl. 21: 239 (1800)
- **Family:** Orchidaceae
- **Accepted species:** 373 (including 34 natural hybrids)
- **Native range:** 36 TDWG regions, tropical and subtropical America, from Florida, Mexico and the Caribbean to northern Argentina
- **Common names:** oncidiums
- **Databases:** [POWO](https://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:331250-2) · [IPNI](https://www.ipni.org/n/331250-2) · [WCVP](https://www.checklistbank.org/dataset/2232/taxon/139096) · [Catalogue of Life](https://www.catalogueoflife.org/data/taxon/8VZVW) · [GBIF](https://www.gbif.org/species/2834394)

## Overview

Oncidium belongs to the orchid family; Kew gives its native range as tropical and subtropical America. WCVP records it from Florida, Mexico, Central America and the Caribbean to Brazil, Paraguay and northern Argentina.

## Classification: a shifting genus

Swartz published the genus in 1800. The AOS notes that the limits of Oncidium have vexed taxonomists and remain unstable. WCVP now includes Odontoglossum, Cochlioda, Sigmatostalix and others (see the table below), so many orchids grown as “odontoglossums” now have their accepted names under Oncidium. The plate above is an example: the first plate of Reichenbachia (1888) is printed Odontoglossum crispum, which WCVP treats as a synonym of Oncidium alexandrae.

The AOS genus card also notes the range of forms: some species have pseudobulbs reduced to a disc and extremely rigid leaves (“mule-ears”), others conspicuous pseudobulbs and thin leaves.

| Genus name | Published in |
| --- | --- |
| Anachaste Lindl. | Stevens's Auction Cat. 1853(19-20 May): n.° 22 (1853) |
| Chamaeleorchis Senghas & Lückel | F.R.R.Schlechter, Orchideen Beschreib. Kult. Zücht., ed. 3, I/C(33-36): 2305 (1997) |
| Cochlioda Lindl. | Fol. Orchid. 4: 1 (1853) |
| Collare-stuartense Senghas & Bockemühl | J. Orchideenfr. 4: 73 (1997) |
| Heteranthocidium Szlach., Mytnik & Romowicz | Polish Bot. J. 51: 54 (2006) |
| Matalbatzia Archila | Revista Guatemalensis 2(3): 34 (1999 publ. 2012) |
| Mexicoa Garay | Bradea 1: 423 (1974) |
| Miltoniastrum (Rchb.f.) Lindl. | Veg. Kingd., ed. 3: 183c (1853) |
| Miltonioides Brieger & Lückel | Orchidee (Hamburg) 34: 130 (1983) |
| Odontoglossum Kunth | F.W.H.von Humboldt, A.J.A.Bonpland & C.S.Kunth, Nov. Gen. Sp. 1: 350 (1816) |
| Petalocentrum Schltr. | Repert. Spec. Nov. Regni Veg. 15: 144 (1918) |
| Roezliella Schltr. | Repert. Spec. Nov. Regni Veg. 15: 146 (1918) |
| Sigmatostalix Rchb.f. | Bot. Zeitung (Berlin) 10: 769 (1852) |
| Solenidiopsis Senghas | Orchidee (Hamburg) 37: 274 (1986) |
| Symphyglossum Schltr. | Orchis 13: 8 (1919) |
| Xeilyathum Raf. | Fl. Tellur. 2: 62 (1837) |

## Distribution

WCVP records the genus as native to 36 TDWG botanical regions.

Argentina NortheastArgentina NorthwestBahamasBelizeBoliviaBrazil NorthBrazil NortheastBrazil SouthBrazil SoutheastBrazil West-CentralColombiaCosta RicaCubaEcuadorEl SalvadorFloridaFrench GuianaGuatemalaGuyanaHondurasLeeward Is.Mexico CentralMexico GulfMexico NortheastMexico NorthwestMexico SoutheastMexico SouthwestNicaraguaPanamáParaguayPeruPuerto RicoSurinameTrinidad-TobagoVenezuelaWindward Is.

## Accepted species

The full list is on https://floreboard.com/en/plants/oncidium/#species.

## Historic plates

Plates in date order; the printed names are kept as they appear, current names are on the species pages and the topic page.

- [](https://floreboard.com/plants/plates/bot-register-1651.jpg)Oncidium altissimumEdwards's Botanical Register · 1651 · 1833, Sarah Anne Drake, J. Watts
- [](https://floreboard.com/plants/plates/bot-register-33-70.jpg)Oncidium pelicanumEdwards's Botanical Register · 70 · 1847, Sarah Anne Drake, G. Barclay
- [](https://floreboard.com/plants/plates/illustration-horticole-002.jpg)Oncidium BarkeriiL'Illustration horticole · 002 · 1854, J. Vandamme, C. Severeyns
- [](https://floreboard.com/plants/plates/second-century-196.jpg)Oncidium strictumA Second Century of Orchidaceous Plants · 196 · 1867, Walter Hood Fitch, name from Commons, unverified
- [](https://floreboard.com/plants/plates/reichenbachia-1-1.jpg)Odontoglossum crispumReichenbachia: Orchids Illustrated and Described · Tab. 1 · 1888, Henry George Moon, Joseph Mansell

## Cultivation

The AOS culture sheet advises light ranging from bright to nearly direct sun depending on the species; intermediate to warm temperatures, 13–16 °C at night and 27–29 °C by day; thorough watering, letting the medium dry at least halfway through the pot before watering again; and 30–60% humidity. Repot when new growth starts, usually in spring.

## Further reading

- [Reference library](https://floreboard.com/en/library/)

## References

- [WCVP · World Checklist of Vascular Plants (via ChecklistBank dataset 2232)](https://www.checklistbank.org/dataset/2232) · accessed 2026-10-24
- [Kew (POWO data on the ColPlanta site) · Oncidium native range](https://colplanta.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:331250-2/general-information)
- [American Orchid Society · Oncidium](https://www.aos.org/explore/oncidium)
- [American Orchid Society · Oncidium Culture Sheet](https://www.aos.org/orchid-care/care-sheets/oncidium-culture-sheet)

Names, places of publication, synonyms and distribution checked against WCVP (2026-10-24); the text follows the cited sources and awaits specialist review.


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<!-- https://floreboard.com/en/plants/vanda/ -->

Reichenbachia: Orchids Illustrated and Described · Tab. 57 · 1890 · Henry George Moon, Joseph Mansell · public domain

# Vanda R.Br.

vandas · Orchidaceae

- **Accepted name:** Vanda R.Br.
- **First published:** Bot. Reg. 6: t. 506 (1821)
- **Family:** Orchidaceae
- **Accepted species:** 97 (including 7 natural hybrids)
- **Native range:** 35 TDWG regions, tropical and subtropical Asia to New Guinea and north-eastern Australia
- **Common names:** vandas
- **Databases:** [POWO](https://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:30077641-2) · [IPNI](https://www.ipni.org/n/30077641-2) · [WCVP](https://www.checklistbank.org/dataset/2232/taxon/211423) · [Catalogue of Life](https://www.catalogueoflife.org/data/taxon/8VSGZ) · [GBIF](https://www.gbif.org/species/2783121)

## Overview

The AOS describes vandas as small to massive monopodial epiphytes and lithophytes: the stems are erect to pendent with upturned tips, leafy and rooting towards the base, and aerial roots are common and abundant. The AOS gives about 53 species, from Sri Lanka north to Nepal and southern China, east to New Guinea and north-east Australia, and north to Taiwan and the Philippines. WCVP draws the genus more widely; the species it accepts are in the table below.

## Classification and naming

Robert Brown published the genus in 1821. WCVP merges Ascocentrum, Neofinetia, Euanthe and others into Vanda (see below): the wind orchid long cultivated in Japan and China, for instance, is now Vanda falcata. The plate above is V. coerulea from Reichenbachia, vol. 2, plate 57; WCVP records it as native from Assam and the eastern Himalaya to south-central China and Indochina.

| Genus name | Published in |
| --- | --- |
| × Trudelianda Garay | Orchid Digest 50: 76 (1986) |
| Ascocentropsis Senghas & Schildh. | J. Orchideenfr. 7: 289 (2000) |
| Ascocentrum Schltr. | Repert. Spec. Nov. Regni Veg. Beih. 1: 975 (1913) |
| Christensonia Haager | Orchid Digest 57: 40 (1993) |
| Eparmatostigma Garay | Bot. Mus. Leafl. 23: 178 (1972) |
| Euanthe Schltr. | Orchideen Beschreib. Kult. Zücht.: 567 (1914) |
| Finetia Schltr. | Beih. Bot. Centralbl., Abt. 2. 36: 140 (1918) |
| Gunnaria S.C.Chen ex Z.J.Liu & L.J.Chen | J. Syst. Evol. 47: 602 (2009) |
| Neofinetia Hu | Rhodora 27: 107 (1925) |
| Nipponorchis Masam. | Mem. Fac. Sci. Taihoku Imp. Univ. 11(Bot., 4): 592 (1934) |
| Trudelia Garay | Orchid Digest 50: 73 (1986) |

## Distribution

WCVP records the genus as native to 35 TDWG botanical regions and introduced in 1 more.

Andaman Is.AssamBangladeshBismarck ArchipelagoBorneoCambodiaChina North-CentralChina South-CentralChina SoutheastEast HimalayaHainanIndiaJapanJawaKoreaLaosLesser Sunda Is.MalayaMalukuMarianasMyanmarNansei-shotoNepalNew GuineaPhilippinesQueenslandSolomon Is.Sri LankaSulawesiSumateraTaiwanThailandTibetVietnamWest Himalaya

### Introduced

Hawaii

## Accepted species

The full list is on https://floreboard.com/en/plants/vanda/#species.

## Historic plates

Plates in date order; the printed names are kept as they appear, current names are on the species pages and the topic page.

- [](https://floreboard.com/plants/plates/roxburgh-coromandel-42.jpg)Epidendrum tessellatumPlants of the Coast of Coromandel · 42 · 1795,
- [](https://floreboard.com/plants/plates/illustration-horticole-vanda-coerulea.jpg)Vanda cœruleaL'Illustration horticole · 1860, L. Stroobant
- [](https://floreboard.com/plants/plates/illustration-horticole-ascocentrum-curvifolium.jpg)Saccolabium curvifoliumL'Illustration horticole · 1866, L. Stroobant
- [](https://floreboard.com/plants/plates/bot-mag-5759.jpg)Vanda insignisCurtis's Botanical Magazine · 5759 · 1869, Walter Hood Fitch
- [](https://floreboard.com/plants/plates/reichenbachia-2-57.jpg)Vanda cœruleaReichenbachia: Orchids Illustrated and Described · Tab. 57 · 1890, Henry George Moon, Joseph Mansell

## Cultivation

The AOS calls light the most important factor in growing and flowering vandas, and flower quality is directly linked to it, usually best in bright summer light; winter flowers are generally poorer, except for V. coerulea and its hybrids, which do better in cool winter months. All species want very bright but not direct light, intermediate to warm temperatures (nights of about 12.7–22.2 °C) and abundant water; for plants with healthy roots, daily watering is usually recommended.

Vandas can be potted in medium to coarse orchid bark, but most species prefer open baskets without any medium. They need steady conditions: swings in temperature and watering make them drop their lower leaves, leaving a bare stem with a few leaves at the top. Aerial roots can be trimmed with a sterile tool to about 60 cm. Water colder than 10 °C, hard water, or water softened with salts will injure the plants.

## Further reading

- [Reference library](https://floreboard.com/en/library/)

## References

- [WCVP · World Checklist of Vascular Plants (via ChecklistBank dataset 2232)](https://www.checklistbank.org/dataset/2232) · accessed 2026-10-24
- [American Orchid Society · Vanda](https://www.aos.org/explore/vanda)
- [American Orchid Society · Vanda Culture Sheet](https://www.aos.org/orchid-care/care-sheets/vanda-culture-sheet)

Names, places of publication, synonyms and distribution checked against WCVP (2026-10-24); the text follows the cited sources and awaits specialist review.


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<!-- https://floreboard.com/en/plants/prunus/ -->

Flora Japonica · Tab. 11 · 1835–1870 · S. Minsinger, W. Siegrist · public domain

# Prunus L.

cherries, plums, peaches and almonds · Rosaceae

- **Accepted name:** Prunus L.
- **First published:** Sp. Pl.: 473 (1753)
- **Family:** Rosaceae
- **Accepted species:** 417 (including 58 natural hybrids)
- **Native range:** 238 TDWG regions, almost worldwide, chiefly in the northern temperate zone
- **Common names:** cherries, plums, peaches and almonds, cherries, plums and almonds
- **Databases:** [POWO](https://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:30003057-2) · [IPNI](https://www.ipni.org/n/30003057-2) · [WCVP](https://www.checklistbank.org/dataset/2232/taxon/2958711) · [Catalogue of Life](https://www.catalogueoflife.org/data/taxon/6Y6H) · [GBIF](https://www.gbif.org/species/3020559)

## Overview

Prunus belongs to the rose family, Rosaceae. The cherry, plum and peach branches florists sell in spring all fall within this one genus in WCVP: former genera such as Cerasus, Armeniaca, Amygdalus, Padus and Lauro-cerasus are now synonyms (see below). Trees of New Guinea notes that the genus is economically important for fruits, nuts, timber and ornamentals.

In WCVP, P. mume (Japanese apricot, mei) is native to south-central China, Laos and Vietnam; P. persica (peach) to north-central China; and P. serrulata to south-central and south-east China, Korea and Manchuria.

## Classification and characters

Linnaeus published the genus in Species Plantarum in 1753. Trees of New Guinea describes shrubs to trees 25 m tall; simple, petiolate, spirally arranged leaves, entire or toothed; five sepals and five white or pink petals, with numerous stamens (15–80) in two whorls; and a drupe with fleshy to dry mesocarp and hard endocarp. Cut trunks and branches may smell of almonds. Older floras give about 200 species; the number WCVP accepts today is in the table below.

| Genus name | Published in |
| --- | --- |
| × Amygdalopersica Delpino ex L.L.Daniel | Rev. Gén. Bot. 27: 33 (1915) |
| × Armenoprunus Janch. | Cat. Fl. Austr., I. Pteridophyt. & Anthophyt. 2: 351 (1958) |
| × Cerapadus Buia | T.Săvulescu, Fl. Republ. Popul. Român. 4: 880 (1956) |
| × Cerasolouiseania E.N.Lomakin & Juschev | Byull. Vsesoyuzn. Ordena Lenina Ordena Druzhby Narodov Nauchno-Issl. Inst. Rasteniev. N. I. Vavilova 81: 23 (1978) |
| × Ceropadus Buia | T.Săvulescu, Fl. Republ. Socialist. România 4: 880 (1956) |
| × Prunoamygdalus Kovalev | Alycha Prirodye Kulturye Selekts.: 55 (1955) |
| Aflatunia Vassilcz. | Bot. Mater. Gerb. Bot. Inst. Komarova Akad. Nauk S.S.S.R. 17: 261 (1955) |
| Amygdalophora Neck. | Elem. Bot. 2: 70 (1790) |
| Amygdalopsis Carrière | Rev. Hort. (Paris) 11: 91 (1862) |
| Amygdalopsis M.Roem. | Fam. Nat. Syn. Monogr. 3: 15 (1847) |
| Amygdalus L. | Sp. Pl.: 472 (1753) |
| Armeniaca Scop. | Meth. Pl.: 15 (1754) |
| Ceraseidos Siebold & Zucc. | Abh. Math.-Phys. Cl. Königl. Bayer. Akad. Wiss. 3(3): 743 (1843) |
| Cerasophora Neck. | Elem. Bot. 2: 71 (1790) |
| Cerasus Mill. | Gard. Dict. Abr., ed. 4.: 1 (1754) |
| Chamaeamygdalus (Spach) Fedor. | Botanica (Lithuania) 30(1): 45 (2024) |
| Chimanthus Raf. | Fl. Ludov.: 26 (1817) |
| Digaster Miq. | Fl. Ned. Ind., Eerste Bijv.: 329 (1861) |
| Dodecadia Lour. | Fl. Cochinch.: 304 (1790) |
| Druparia Clairv. | Man. Herbor. Suisse: 159 (1811) |
| Emplectocladus Torr. | Proc. Amer. Assoc. Advancem. Sci. 4: 192 (1851) |
| Germaria C.Presl | Abh. Königl. Böhm. Ges. Wiss., ser. 5, 6: 221 (1851) |
| Hagidryas Griseb. | Reise Rumel. 1: 311 (1841) |
| Jadelotia Buc'hoz | Herb. Color. Amérique: t. 42 (1783) |
| Lauro-cerasus Duhamel | Traité Arbr. Arbust. 1: 345 (1755) |
| Louiseania Carrière | Rev. Hort. (Paris) 44: 34 (1872) |
| Maddenia Hook.f. & Thomson | Hooker's J. Bot. Kew Gard. Misc. 6: 381 (1854) |
| Mahaleb Takht. | Fl. Armen. 3: 324 (1958) |
| Microcerasus Webb & Berthel. | Hist. Nat. Iles Canaries 3(2; 2): 19 (1842) |
| Orospodias Raf. | Atlantic J. 1: 182 (1833) |
| Padellus Vassilcz. | Novosti Sist. Vyssh. Rast. 10: 185 (1973) |
| Padus Mill. | Gard. Dict. Abr., ed. 4. 3: (1754) |
| Polydontia Blume | Bijdr. Fl. Ned. Ind.: 1104 (1826) |
| Polystorthia Blume | Fl. Javae, Praef.: viii (1828) |
| Prunoaflatunia Tkatsch. | Derev. Kustarnik. Dik. Fl. Kirg.: 305 (1972) |
| Prunophora Neck. | Elem. Bot. 2: 71 (1790) |
| Prunopsis André | Rev. Hort. (Paris) 55: 369 (1883) |
| Prunus-lauro-cerasus Marshall | Arbust. Amer.: 114 (1785) |
| Pygeum Gaertn. | Fruct. Sem. Pl. 1: 218 (1788) |
| Trichocarpus Neck. | Elem. Bot. 2: 70 (1790) |
| Tubopadus Pomel | Mat. Fl. Atl.: 8 (1860) |
| Turetta Vell. | Fl. Flumin.: 233 (1829) |

## Distribution

WCVP records the genus as native to 238 TDWG botanical regions and introduced in 16 more.

Native regions (238)

AfghanistanAlabamaAlbaniaAlbertaAlgeriaAltayAmurAndaman Is.AngolaArgentina NortheastArgentina NorthwestArizonaArkansasAssamAustriaAzoresBahamasBalearesBaltic StatesBangladeshBelarusBelgiumBismarck ArchipelagoBoliviaBorneoBrazil NorthBrazil NortheastBrazil SouthBrazil SoutheastBrazil West-CentralBritish ColumbiaBulgariaBurundiBuryatiyaCaliforniaCambodiaCameroonCanary Is.Cape ProvincesCentral European RussiaChina North-CentralChina South-CentralChina SoutheastColombiaColoradoComorosConnecticutCorseCosta RicaCubaCyprusCzechia-SlovakiaDelawareDenmarkDistrict of ColumbiaDominican RepublicDR CongoEast Aegean Is.East European RussiaEast HimalayaEcuadorEl SalvadorEswatiniEthiopiaFinlandFloridaFranceFree StateFrench GuianaGeorgiaGermanyGhanaGreat BritainGreeceGuatemalaGulf of Guinea Is.Gulf StatesGuyanaHainanHaitiHondurasHungaryIdahoIllinoisIndiaIndianaInner MongoliaIowaIranIraqIrelandIrkutskItalyJamaicaJapanJawaKamchatkaKansasKazakhstanKentuckyKenyaKhabarovskKirgizstanKoreaKrasnoyarskKritiKrymKuril Is.KwaZulu-NatalLabradorLaosLebanon-SyriaLeeward Is.LesothoLesser Sunda Is.LibyaLouisianaMadagascarMadeiraMagadanMaineMalawiMalayaMalukuManchuriaManitobaMarylandMassachusettsMexican Pacific Is.Mexico CentralMexico GulfMexico NortheastMexico NorthwestMexico SoutheastMexico SouthwestMichiganMinnesotaMississippiMissouriMongoliaMontanaMoroccoMozambiqueMyanmarNansei-shotoNebraskaNepalNetherlandsNevadaNew BrunswickNew GuineaNew HampshireNew JerseyNew MexicoNew YorkNewfoundlandNicaraguaNorth CarolinaNorth CaucasusNorth DakotaNorth European RussiaNorthern ProvincesNorthwest European RussiaNorthwest TerritoriesNorwayNova ScotiaNW. Balkan Pen.OhioOklahomaOmanOntarioOregonPakistanPalestinePanamáParaguayPennsylvaniaPeruPhilippinesPolandPortugalPrimoryePrince Edward I.Puerto RicoQinghaiQuébecRhode I.RomaniaRwandaSakhalinSardegnaSaskatchewanSaudi ArabiaSiciliaSolomon Is.South CarolinaSouth DakotaSouth European RussiaSpainSri LankaSulawesiSumateraSurinameSwedenSwitzerlandTadzhikistanTaiwanTanzaniaTennesseeTexasThailandTibetTranscaucasusTrinidad-TobagoTunisiaTürkiyeTürkiye-in-EuropeTurkmenistanTuvaUgandaUkraineUruguayUtahUzbekistanVenezuelaVermontVietnamVirginiaWashingtonWest HimalayaWest SiberiaWest VirginiaWisconsinWyomingXinjiangYakutiyaZambiaZimbabwe

### Introduced

AlaskaArgentina SouthCape VerdeFalkland Is.MarianasMauritiusNew South WalesNew Zealand NorthNew Zealand SouthQueenslandRéunionRodriguesSouth AustraliaSt.HelenaTasmaniaVictoria

## Accepted species

The full list is on https://floreboard.com/en/plants/prunus/#species.

## Historic plates

Plates in date order; the printed names are kept as they appear, current names are on the species pages and the topic page.

- [](https://floreboard.com/plants/plates/bot-register-27.jpg)Prunus japonicaEdwards's Botanical Register · 27 · 1815, Sydenham Edwards, Smith
- [](https://floreboard.com/plants/plates/flora-japonica-11.jpg)Prunus MumeFlora Japonica · Tab. 11 · 1835–1870, S. Minsinger, W. Siegrist
- [](https://floreboard.com/plants/plates/kohler-36.jpg)Prunus CerasusKöhler's Medizinal-Pflanzen · 36 · 1887,

## Ornamental cherries and safety

The RHS describes ornamental cherry flowers as borne in clusters along the branches, single, semi-double or fully double and sometimes lightly fragrant, in white through to deep pink, opening before or just as the leaves emerge. Grow them in moist but well-drained, moderately fertile soil, not in poorly drained or waterlogged ground; heavy pruning, especially in winter, may increase the risk of disease.

The ASPCA lists Prunus as toxic to dogs, cats and horses: the stems, leaves and seeds contain cyanogenic glycosides and are particularly toxic while wilting; signs include brick-red mucous membranes, dilated pupils, difficulty breathing, panting and shock.

## Further reading

- [Flower guide](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/cherry/)
- [Flower guide](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/plum/)
- [Flower guide](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/peach/)
- [Reference library](https://floreboard.com/en/library/)

## References

- [WCVP · World Checklist of Vascular Plants (via ChecklistBank dataset 2232)](https://www.checklistbank.org/dataset/2232) · accessed 2026-10-24
- [Kew (POWO data on the ColPlanta site) · Prunus, with genus descriptions from Trees of New Guinea and Flora Zambesiaca](https://colplanta.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:30003057-2/general-information)
- [RHS · Large prunus (ornamental cherry)](https://www.rhs.org.uk/plants/prunus/large-prunus-ornamental-cherry)
- [ASPCA Animal Poison Control · Cherry (Prunus spp.)](https://www.aspca.org/pet-care/animal-poison-control/toxic-and-non-toxic-plants/cherry)

Names, places of publication, synonyms and distribution checked against WCVP (2026-10-24); the text follows the cited sources and awaits specialist review.


---

<!-- https://floreboard.com/en/plants/hippeastrum/ -->

Curtis's Botanical Magazine · 129 · 1790 · Sydenham Edwards, W. Darton · public domain

# Hippeastrum Herb.

hippeastrums (amaryllis) · Amaryllidaceae

- **Accepted name:** Hippeastrum Herb.
- **First published:** Appendix: 31 (1821)
- **Family:** Amaryllidaceae
- **Accepted species:** 119 (including 3 natural hybrids)
- **Native range:** 18 TDWG regions, Central and tropical South America
- **Common names:** hippeastrums (amaryllis)
- **Databases:** [POWO](https://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:331211-2) · [IPNI](https://www.ipni.org/n/331211-2) · [WCVP](https://www.checklistbank.org/dataset/2232/taxon/278065) · [Catalogue of Life](https://www.catalogueoflife.org/data/taxon/8VY96) · [GBIF](https://www.gbif.org/species/2854235)

## Overview

Hippeastrum belongs to the amaryllis family, Amaryllidaceae; Kew gives its native range as Central and tropical South America. The RHS notes that hippeastrums are popular Christmas gifts, commonly known as amaryllis. The true Amaryllis is a different genus: WCVP accepts only a handful of species, such as Amaryllis belladonna, all from the Cape Provinces of South Africa.

Flora of the Cayman Islands describes bulbous plants with several flat, entire leaves and large, showy flowers, usually two or more in an umbel at the top of a hollow, leafless scape.

## Classification and naming

Herbert published the name in 1821. Early plates often placed its species in Amaryllis: the plate above is Amaryllis vittata from Curtis’s Botanical Magazine, plate 129 (1790), now Hippeastrum vittatum, which WCVP records as native to southern Brazil, north-eastern Argentina and Bolivia. Flora of the Cayman Islands gives about 75 species; the number WCVP accepts today is in the table below.

| Genus name | Published in |
| --- | --- |
| Aschamia Salisb. | Gen. Pl.: 134 (1866) |
| Aulica Raf. | Fl. Tellur. 4: 10 (1838) |
| Callicore Link | Handbuch 1: 193 (1829) |
| Carlotea Arruda ex Koster | Trav. Brazil: 493 (1816) |
| Chonais Salisb. | Gen. Pl.: 135 (1866) |
| Eusarcops Raf. | Fl. Tellur. 4: 11 (1838) |
| Lais Salisb. | Gen. Pl.: 134 (1866) |
| Leopoldia Herb. | Trans. Hort. Soc. London 4: 181 (1821) |
| Lepidopharynx Rusby | Mem. New York Bot. Gard. 7: 214 (1927) |
| Moldenkea Traub | Pl. Life 7: 41 (1951) |
| Omphalissa Salisb. | Gen. Pl.: 134 (1866) |
| Tocantinia Ravenna | Onira 5: 9 (2000) |
| Trisacarpis Raf. | Fl. Tellur. 4: 11 (1838) |

## Distribution

WCVP records the genus as native to 18 TDWG botanical regions and introduced in 42 more.

Argentina NortheastArgentina NorthwestBoliviaBrazil NorthBrazil NortheastBrazil SouthBrazil SoutheastBrazil West-CentralColombiaCosta RicaEcuadorFrench GuianaGuyanaParaguayPeruSurinameUruguayVenezuela

### Introduced

Introduced regions (42)

AngolaAscensionBahamasBelizeCaroline Is.Cayman Is.Chagos ArchipelagoCook Is.CubaDominican RepublicGulf of Guinea Is.HaitiHawaiiHondurasJamaicaLeeward Is.LouisianaMarianasMarshall Is.MauritiusMexico CentralMexico GulfMexico SoutheastMexico SouthwestNauruNew CaledoniaNicaraguaNiueNorfolk Is.Puerto RicoRodriguesRwandaSeychellesSociety Is.Solomon Is.Sri LankaTexasTrinidad-TobagoTunisiaVenezuelan AntillesWindward Is.Zimbabwe

## Accepted species

The full list is on https://floreboard.com/en/plants/hippeastrum/#species.

## Historic plates

Plates in date order; the printed names are kept as they appear, current names are on the species pages and the topic page.

- [](https://floreboard.com/plants/plates/bm-129.jpg)Amaryllis vittataCurtis's Botanical Magazine · 129 · 1790, Sydenham Edwards, W. Darton
- [](https://floreboard.com/plants/plates/bot-mag-9-305.jpg)Amaryllis equestrisCurtis's Botanical Magazine · 305 · 1795,
- [](https://floreboard.com/plants/plates/bot-mag-13-453.jpg)Amaryllis reginaeCurtis's Botanical Magazine · 453 · 1799, Sydenham Edwards
- [](https://floreboard.com/plants/plates/bot-mag-657.jpg)Amaryllis reticulataCurtis's Botanical Magazine · 657 · 1803, Sydenham Edwards
- [](https://floreboard.com/plants/plates/bot-register-38.jpg)Amaryllis crocataEdwards's Botanical Register · 38 · 1815, Sydenham Edwards, Smith

## Growing and safety

The RHS advises that hippeastrum is a tender bulb to be grown in pots indoors. Plant from October to January in pots only a little larger than the bulb, with two-thirds of the bulb above the surface; flowers follow about six to eight weeks after planting, from winter to spring. After flowering, cut the spent spikes to the base but keep the leaves growing.

The ASPCA’s amaryllis entry lists these plants as toxic to dogs, cats and horses, with lycorine and other compounds as the toxic principles; signs include vomiting (not in horses), depression, diarrhoea, abdominal pain, hypersalivation, anorexia and tremors.

## Further reading

- [Flower guide](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/amaryllis/)
- [Reference library](https://floreboard.com/en/library/)

## References

- [WCVP · World Checklist of Vascular Plants (via ChecklistBank dataset 2232)](https://www.checklistbank.org/dataset/2232) · accessed 2026-10-24
- [Kew (POWO data on the ColPlanta site) · Hippeastrum, with genus description from Flora of the Cayman Islands](https://colplanta.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:331211-2/general-information)
- [RHS · Hippeastrum](https://www.rhs.org.uk/plants/hippeastrum/growing-guide)
- [ASPCA Animal Poison Control · Amaryllis](https://www.aspca.org/pet-care/animal-poison-control/toxic-and-non-toxic-plants/amaryllis)

Names, places of publication, synonyms and distribution checked against WCVP (2026-10-24); the text follows the cited sources and awaits specialist review.


---

<!-- https://floreboard.com/en/plants/gladiolus/ -->

Curtis's Botanical Magazine · 135 · 1790 · Sydenham Edwards · public domain

# Gladiolus Tourn. ex L.

gladioli · Iridaceae

- **Accepted name:** Gladiolus Tourn. ex L.
- **First published:** Sp. Pl.: 36 (1753)
- **Family:** Iridaceae
- **Accepted species:** 305 (including 9 natural hybrids)
- **Native range:** 101 TDWG regions, Europe to Iran, Arabia and Africa, concentrated in southern Africa
- **Common names:** gladioli, Gladiolus
- **Databases:** [POWO](https://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:30066908-2) · [IPNI](https://www.ipni.org/n/30066908-2) · [WCVP](https://www.checklistbank.org/dataset/2232/taxon/328157) · [Catalogue of Life](https://www.catalogueoflife.org/data/taxon/8VXVR) · [GBIF](https://www.gbif.org/species/2749747)

## Overview

Gladiolus belongs to the iris family, Iridaceae; Kew gives its native range as Europe to Iran, Arabia and Africa. Flora of Somalia gives some 285 species centred in southern Africa and extending through tropical Africa and Madagascar to Europe and the Middle East; Flora of Oman gives about 180 species in Africa, concentrated in the south-western Cape.

The plate above is G. cardinalis from Curtis’s Botanical Magazine, plate 135 (1790); WCVP cites this plate as the place the species was published and records it as native to the Cape Provinces.

## Classification and characters

Linnaeus published the genus in Species Plantarum in 1753; Acidanthera, Antholyza, Homoglossum and other genera are now included (see below). Flora of Tropical East Africa describes perennials with corms in leathery to fibrous, netted tunics; flowers in a spike, all facing one way (in two ranks in a few species); and flowers bilaterally symmetrical, radially symmetrical in a few South African species.

| Genus name | Published in |
| --- | --- |
| × Gladanthera J.M.Wright | Gladiolus Annual Brit. Gladiolus Soc. 1966: 33 (1966) |
| × Homoglad Ingram | J. Roy. Hort. Soc. 92: 311 (1967) |
| Acidanthera Hochst. | Flora 27: 25 (1844) |
| Anisanthus Sweet | Hort. Brit.: 396 (1826) |
| Anomalesia N.E.Br. | Trans. Roy. Soc. South Africa 20: 270 (1932) |
| Antholyza L. | Sp. Pl.: 37 (1753) |
| Ballosporum Salisb. | Gen. Pl.: 142 (1866) |
| Bertera Steud. | Nomencl. Bot., ed. 2. 1: 199 (1840) |
| Cunonia Mill. | Fig. Pl. Gard. Dict. 1: 75 (1756) |
| Dortania A.Chev. | Bull. Mus. Natl. Hist. Nat., sér. 2, 9: 402 (1937 publ. 1938) |
| Hebea R.Hedw. | Gen. Pl.: 24 (1806) |
| Homoglossum Salisb. | Gen. Pl.: 143 (1866) |
| Hyptissa Salisb. | Gen. Pl.: 142 (1866) |
| Keitia Regel | Trudy Imp. S.-Peterburgsk. Bot. Sada 5: 639 (1878) |
| Kentrosiphon N.E.Br. | Trans. Roy. Soc. South Africa 20: 271 (1932) |
| Liliogladiolus Trew | Pl. Select. 4: 10 (1754) |
| Oenostachys Bullock | Bull. Misc. Inform. Kew 1930: 465 (1930) |
| Ophiolyza Salisb. | Gen. Pl.: 142 (1866) |
| Petamenes Salisb. ex J.W.Loudon | Ladies' Flower-gard.: 42 (1841) |
| Petamenes Salisb. ex N.E.Br. | Trans. Roy. Soc. South Africa 20: 276 (1932) |
| Ranisia Salisb. | Gen. Pl.: 143 (1866) |
| Solenanthus Steud. ex Klatt | J. Linn. Soc., Bot. 16: 159 (1877) |
| Sphaerospora Sweet | Hort. Brit.: 398 (1826) |
| Symphydolon Salisb. | Gen. Pl.: 142 (1866) |

## Distribution

WCVP records the genus as native to 101 TDWG botanical regions and introduced in 27 more.

Native regions (101)

AlbaniaAlgeriaAngolaAustriaAzoresBalearesBaltic StatesBelarusBeninBotswanaBulgariaBurkinaBurundiCameroonCanary Is.Cape ProvincesCaprivi StripCentral African RepublicCentral European RussiaChadCongoCorseCyprusCzechia-SlovakiaDjiboutiDR CongoEast Aegean Is.East European RussiaEgyptEquatorial GuineaEritreaEswatiniEthiopiaFranceFree StateGabonGambiaGermanyGhanaGreeceGuineaGuinea-BissauGulf of Guinea Is.Gulf StatesHungaryIranIraqItalyIvory CoastKazakhstanKenyaKritiKrymKwaZulu-NatalLebanon-SyriaLesothoLiberiaLibyaMadagascarMalawiMaliMoroccoMozambiqueNamibiaNigeriaNorth CaucasusNorthern ProvincesNorthwest European RussiaNW. Balkan Pen.OmanPalestinePolandPortugalRomaniaRwandaSardegnaSaudi ArabiaSenegalSiciliaSierra LeoneSinaiSomaliaSouth European RussiaSpainSudan-South SudanSwitzerlandTadzhikistanTanzaniaTogoTranscaucasusTunisiaTürkiyeTürkiye-in-EuropeTurkmenistanUgandaUkraineUzbekistanWest SiberiaYemenZambiaZimbabwe

### Introduced

AlabamaArgentina NortheastArkansasCaliforniaEast HimalayaFinlandFloridaGeorgiaGreat BritainHawaiiIrelandJamaicaKentuckyLouisianaMadeiraMexico CentralMississippiNew Zealand NorthNorth CarolinaOklahomaPeruPuerto RicoSouth CarolinaTasmaniaTennesseeTexasWestern Australia

## Accepted species

The full list is on https://floreboard.com/en/plants/gladiolus/#species.

## Historic plates

Plates in date order; the printed names are kept as they appear, current names are on the species pages and the topic page.

- [](https://floreboard.com/plants/plates/bm-135.jpg)Gladiolus cardinalisCurtis's Botanical Magazine · 135 · 1790, Sydenham Edwards
- [](https://floreboard.com/plants/plates/bot-mag-13-450.jpg)Gladiolus watsoniusCurtis's Botanical Magazine · 450 · 1799, Sydenham Edwards
- [](https://floreboard.com/plants/plates/sturm-flora-gladiolus-imbricatus.jpg)Gladiolus imbricatusDeutschlands Flora in Abbildungen · 1830, Fieber
- [](https://floreboard.com/plants/plates/flore-des-serres-gladiolus-carinatus.jpg)Gladiolus ringensFlore des serres et des jardins de l'Europe · 1848, L. Stroobant, Louis van Houtte
- [](https://floreboard.com/plants/plates/favourite-flowers-gladiolus-gandavensis.jpg)Gladiolus gandavensisFavourite Flowers of Garden and Greenhouse · Pl. 258 · 1897,

## Growing and cut-flower handling

The RHS notes that some species and cultivars are hardy and others need frost protection; many popular garden hybrids are not fully hardy and are usually lifted and stored frost-free, summer-flowering hybrids about six weeks after flowering, before the foliage fades. Garden hybrids make good cut flowers and can be planted in rows; when cutting, leave as much foliage as possible to feed next year’s corm.

Floralife advises choosing spikes with a few open florets and one to five stems showing colour, avoiding brown or shrivelled florets and leaf-tip burn; store at 1–3 °C and 75–85% relative humidity; vase life is 6–10 days. Store upright if possible, as spikes bend and deform. Ethylene sensitivity is low, but ethylene makes unopened florets abort, so ask whether the stems were treated with an ethylene action inhibitor. Gladioli are fluoride-sensitive, so avoid fluoridated and softened water; stem ends readily form bacterial biofilm; and the leaves yellow easily, which a bulb flower food helps. The ASPCA lists gladiolus as toxic to dogs, cats and horses, with the highest concentration in the corms.

## Further reading

- [Flower guide](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/gladiolus/)
- [Reference library](https://floreboard.com/en/library/)

## References

- [WCVP · World Checklist of Vascular Plants (via ChecklistBank dataset 2232)](https://www.checklistbank.org/dataset/2232) · accessed 2026-10-24
- [Kew (POWO data on the ColPlanta site) · Gladiolus, with genus descriptions from Flora of Tropical East Africa, Flora of Oman and Flora of Somalia](https://colplanta.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:30066908-2/general-information)
- [RHS · How to grow gladioli](https://www.rhs.org.uk/plants/gladioli/growing-guide)
- [Floralife · Gladiolus care and handling](https://floralife.com/flowers/gladiolus/)
- [ASPCA Animal Poison Control · Gladiola](https://www.aspca.org/pet-care/animal-poison-control/toxic-and-non-toxic-plants/gladiola)

Names, places of publication, synonyms and distribution checked against WCVP (2026-10-24); the text follows the cited sources and awaits specialist review.


---

<!-- https://floreboard.com/en/plants/freesia/ -->

Curtis's Botanical Magazine · 606 · 1802 · Sydenham Edwards · public domain

# Freesia Eckl. ex Klatt

freesias · Iridaceae

- **Accepted name:** Freesia Eckl. ex Klatt
- **First published:** Linnaea 34: 672 (1866)
- **Family:** Iridaceae
- **Accepted species:** 17 (including 1 natural hybrids)
- **Native range:** 15 TDWG regions, Kenya to southern Africa
- **Common names:** freesias
- **Databases:** [POWO](https://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:331198-2) · [IPNI](https://www.ipni.org/n/331198-2) · [WCVP](https://www.checklistbank.org/dataset/2232/taxon/328111) · [Catalogue of Life](https://www.catalogueoflife.org/data/taxon/8VXQB) · [GBIF](https://www.gbif.org/species/2747044)

## Overview

Freesia belongs to the iris family, Iridaceae; Kew gives its native range as Kenya to southern Africa. The RHS notes that freesias come from South Africa, with bright, strongly scented flowers, and because they need conditions like their native habitat, they are more often bought as cut flowers than grown from corms.

On this site the cut-flower freesia is identified as the hybrid Freesia × kewensis, which WCVP accepts; WCVP records F. refracta and F. leichtlinii as native to the Cape Provinces.

## Classification and characters

Klatt published the name in 1866 (cited by WCVP as Eckl. ex Klatt). WCVP includes Anomatheca, so the genus holds both the scented cut-flower species and small plants once called Anomatheca or Lapeirousia. The plate above, from Curtis’s Botanical Magazine, plate 606 (1802), is named in the text as Lapeyrousia juncea, a synonym of Freesia verrucosa in WCVP.

Flora of Tropical East Africa describes perennials with corms in fibrous tunics, a spike usually flexed at the base, and bilaterally symmetrical flowers in shades of pink to red, or whitish.

| Genus name | Published in |
| --- | --- |
| Anomatheca Ker Gawl. | Ann. Bot. (König & Sims) 1: 227 (1804) |
| Nymanina Kuntze | Revis. Gen. Pl. 2: 701 (1891) |

## Distribution

WCVP records the genus as native to 15 TDWG botanical regions and introduced in 25 more.

Cape ProvincesDR CongoEswatiniFree StateKenyaKwaZulu-NatalMalawiMozambiqueNamibiaNorthern ProvincesRwandaTanzaniaUgandaZambiaZimbabwe

### Introduced

Argentina NortheastBalearesBermudaCaliforniaCanary Is.CorseEast Aegean Is.FloridaFranceGreeceItalyJapanKritiMadeiraMauritiusNew South WalesNorfolk Is.PortugalRéunionSardegnaSiciliaSpainSt.HelenaTunisiaTürkiye

## Accepted species

The full list is on https://floreboard.com/en/plants/freesia/#species.

## Historic plates

Plates in date order; the printed names are kept as they appear, current names are on the species pages and the topic page.

- [](https://floreboard.com/plants/plates/bm-606.jpg)Lapeyrousia junceaCurtis's Botanical Magazine · 606 · 1802, Sydenham Edwards
- [](https://floreboard.com/plants/plates/bot-mag-6924.jpg)Lapeirousia grandifloraCurtis's Botanical Magazine · 6924 · 1887, Matilda Smith, John Nugent Fitch

## Growing and cut-flower handling

The RHS notes that freesias are sold as corms, prepared or unprepared; prepared corms are heat-treated to flower earlier but flower only once. Planted in containers from August to December, they flower from January to April; keep them cool at first, then move them to a cool greenhouse or conservatory. They make long-lasting cut flowers.

Floralife advises choosing stems with the first bud almost fully developed but not open and the remaining buds showing colour; stems cut too green may not open all their buds. Store at 1–3 °C and 75–85% relative humidity; vase life is 4–12 days. Freesias are sensitive to desiccation and do not tolerate dry shipping and storage; they are fluoride-sensitive, which burns the leaf tips, so avoid fluoridated and softened water; they are moderately ethylene-sensitive, which causes bud drop and transparent petals; and the leaves yellow easily, which a bulb flower food helps.

## Further reading

- [Flower guide](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/freesia/)
- [Reference library](https://floreboard.com/en/library/)

## References

- [WCVP · World Checklist of Vascular Plants (via ChecklistBank dataset 2232)](https://www.checklistbank.org/dataset/2232) · accessed 2026-10-24
- [Kew (POWO data on the ColPlanta site) · Freesia, with genus descriptions from Flora of Tropical East Africa and Flora Zambesiaca](https://colplanta.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:331198-2/general-information)
- [RHS · How to grow freesias](https://www.rhs.org.uk/plants/freesia/growing-guide)
- [Floralife · Freesia care and handling](https://floralife.com/flowers/freesia/)

Names, places of publication, synonyms and distribution checked against WCVP (2026-10-24); the text follows the cited sources and awaits specialist review.


---

<!-- https://floreboard.com/en/plants/iris/ -->

Curtis's Botanical Magazine · 686 · 1803 · Sydenham Edwards · public domain

# Iris Tourn. ex L.

irises · Iridaceae

- **Accepted name:** Iris Tourn. ex L.
- **First published:** Sp. Pl.: 38 (1753)
- **Family:** Iridaceae
- **Accepted species:** 348 (including 28 natural hybrids)
- **Native range:** 166 TDWG regions, the temperate Northern Hemisphere to the Philippines
- **Common names:** irises
- **Databases:** [POWO](https://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:326330-2) · [IPNI](https://www.ipni.org/n/326330-2) · [WCVP](https://www.checklistbank.org/dataset/2232/taxon/321523) · [Catalogue of Life](https://www.catalogueoflife.org/data/taxon/8VS52) · [GBIF](https://www.gbif.org/species/2748017)

## Overview

Iris belongs to the iris family, Iridaceae; Kew gives its native range as the temperate Northern Hemisphere to the Philippines. The cut iris is mainly Dutch iris, Iris × hollandica, which WCVP accepts as a hybrid. The RHS describes Dutch types as about 60 cm tall in flower, with unobtrusive grassy leaves and flowers in yellow, blue, purple, white and bicolours, and more reliable than the 15 cm, early-flowering I. reticulata, especially on well-drained soil.

The plate above is I. xiphium, the Spanish iris, from Curtis’s Botanical Magazine, plate 686 (1803); WCVP records it as native to the Iberian Peninsula, southern France, Italy and north-west Africa.

## Classification and naming

Linnaeus published the genus in Species Plantarum in 1753. WCVP takes a broad view, including Belamcanda, Hermodactylus, Juno and others (see below): the blackberry lily used in Chinese medicine is now Iris domestica, which WCVP records as native from China, Japan and Korea to the Himalaya and South-East Asia.

| Genus name | Published in |
| --- | --- |
| × Pardancanda L.W.Lenz | Aliso 7: 407 (1972) |
| Alatavia Rodion. | Bot. Zhurn. (Moscow & Leningrad) 84(7): 103 (1999) |
| Belamcanda Adans. | Fam. Pl. 2: 60 (1763) |
| Belemcanda (Pers.) Nois. | Man. Compl. Jard. 3: 238 (1826) |
| Beverna Adans. | Fam. Pl. 2: 20 (1763) |
| Biris Medik. | Staatswirthschaftl. Vorles. Churpfälz. Phys.-Ökon. Ges. Heidelberg 1: 257 (1781) |
| Chamaeiris Medik. | Hist. & Commentat. Acad. Elect. Sci. Theod.-Palat. 6: 417 (1790) |
| Chamoletta Adans. | Fam. Pl. 2: 60 (1763) |
| Coresantha Alef. | Bot. Zeitung (Berlin) 21: 298 (1863) |
| Costia Willk. | Bot. Zeitung (Berlin) 18: 131 (1860) |
| Cryptobasis Nevski | Trudy Bot. Inst. Akad. Nauk S.S.S.R, Ser. 1, Fl. Sist. Vyssh. Rast. 4: 331 (1937) |
| Dielsiris M.B.Crespo, Mart.-Azorín & Mavrodiev | Phytotaxa 232: 64 (2015) |
| Eremiris (Spach) Rodion. | Bot. Zhurn. (Moscow & Leningrad) 91: 1707 (2006) |
| Evansia Salisb. ex Decne. | Bull. Soc. Bot. France 20: 301 (1874) |
| Gattenhofia Medik. | Hist. & Commentat. Acad. Elect. Sci. Theod.-Palat. 6: 418 (1790) |
| Gemmingia Heist. ex Fabr. | Enum. Meth. Pl., ed. 2: 27 (1763) |
| Hermodactylus Mill. | Gard. Dict. Abr., ed. 4.: [s.p.] (1754) |
| Ioniris Baker | Gard. Chron., n.s., 6: 143 (1876) |
| Iriastrum Heist. ex Fabr. | Enum. Meth. Pl., ed. 2: 34 (1763) |
| Iridodictyum Rodion. | Rod Iris-Iris: 201 (1961) |
| Joniris (Spach) Klatt | Bot. Zeitung (Berlin) 30: 502 (1872) |
| Juno Tratt. | Auswahl Gartenpflanzen 1: 135 (1821) |
| Junopsis Wern.Schulze | Oesterr. Bot. Z. 117: 327 (1970) |
| Limnirion Opiz | Seznam: 59 (1852) |
| Limniris (Tausch) Rchb. | Deut. Bot. Herb.-Buch, Nom.: 43 (1841) |
| Lophiris (Tausch) M.B.Crespo, Mart.-Azorín & Mavrodiev | Phytotaxa 232: 66 (2015) |
| Neubeckia Alef. | Bot. Zeitung (Berlin) 21: 290 (1863) |
| Oncocyclus Siemssen | Bot. Zeitung (Berlin) 4: 706 (1846) |
| Ophioiris (Y.T.Zhao) Rodion. | Bot. Zhurn. (Moscow & Leningrad) 89: 1359 (2004) |
| Pardanthopsis (Hance) L.W.Lenz | Aliso 7: 403 (1972) |
| Pardanthus Ker Gawl. | Ann. Bot. (König & Sims) 1: 246 (1804) |
| Phaeiris (Spach) M.B.Crespo, Mart.-Azorín & Mavrodiev | Phytotaxa 232: 58 (2015) |
| Portiodora M.B.Crespo, Mart.-Azorín & Mavrodiev | Biology (Basel) 14(12)-1767: 5 (2025) |
| Pseudo-iris Medik. | Hist. & Commentat. Acad. Elect. Sci. Theod.-Palat. 6: 417 (1790) |
| Rodionenkoa M.B.Crespo, Mart.-Azorín & Mavrodiev | Phytotaxa 232: 65 (2015) |
| Sclerosiphon Nevski | Trudy Bot. Inst. Akad. Nauk S.S.S.R, Ser. 1, Fl. Sist. Vyssh. Rast. 4: 331 (1937) |
| Siphonostylis Wern.Schulze | Oesterr. Bot. Z. 112: 331 (1965) |
| Spathula Fourr. | Ann. Soc. Linn. Lyon, n.s., 17: 163 (1869) |
| Syrianthus M.B.Crespo, Mart.-Azorín & Mavrodiev | Phytotaxa 232: 62 (2015) |
| Tectiris M.B.Crespo, Mart.-Azorín & Mavrodiev | Phytotaxa 232: 55 (2015) |
| Thelysia Salisb. | Trans. Hort. Soc. London 1: 303 (1812) |
| Xeris Medik. | Vorles. Churpfälz. Phys.-Ökon. Ges. 1: 256 (1791) |
| Xiphion Mill. | Gard. Dict. Abr., ed. 4.: [s.p.] (1754) |
| Xyphion Medik. | Hist. & Commentat. Acad. Elect. Sci. Theod.-Palat. 6: 418 (1790) |
| Xyridion (Tausch) Fourr. | Ann. Soc. Linn. Lyon, n.s., 17: 163 (1869) |
| Zhaoanthus M.B.Crespo, Mart.-Azorín & Mavrodiev | Phytotaxa 232: 59 (2015) |

## Distribution

WCVP records the genus as native to 166 TDWG botanical regions and introduced in 23 more.

Native regions (166)

AfghanistanAlabamaAlaskaAlbaniaAlbertaAleutian Is.AlgeriaAltayAmurArizonaArkansasAssamAustriaAzoresBalearesBaltic StatesBangladeshBelarusBelgiumBritish ColumbiaBulgariaBuryatiyaCaliforniaCambodiaCentral European RussiaChina North-CentralChina South-CentralChina SoutheastChitaColoradoConnecticutCorseCzechia-SlovakiaDelawareDenmarkDistrict of ColumbiaEast Aegean Is.East European RussiaEast HimalayaFinlandFloridaFøroyarFranceGeorgiaGermanyGreat BritainGreeceHainanHungaryIdahoIllinoisIndiaIndianaInner MongoliaIowaIranIraqIrelandIrkutskItalyJapanKamchatkaKansasKazakhstanKentuckyKhabarovskKirgizstanKoreaKrasnoyarskKritiKrymKuril Is.LabradorLebanon-SyriaLibyaLouisianaMadeiraMagadanMaineMalayaManchuriaManitobaMarylandMassachusettsMexico NortheastMichiganMinnesotaMississippiMissouriMongoliaMontanaMoroccoMyanmarNebraskaNepalNetherlandsNevadaNew BrunswickNew HampshireNew JerseyNew MexicoNew YorkNewfoundlandNorth CarolinaNorth CaucasusNorth European RussiaNorthwest European RussiaNorwayNova ScotiaNunavutNW. Balkan Pen.OhioOklahomaOntarioOregonPakistanPalestinePennsylvaniaPhilippinesPolandPortugalPrimoryePrince Edward I.QinghaiQuébecRhode I.RomaniaSakhalinSardegnaSaudi ArabiaSiciliaSinaiSouth CarolinaSouth DakotaSouth European RussiaSpainSwedenSwitzerlandTadzhikistanTaiwanTennesseeTexasThailandTibetTranscaucasusTunisiaTürkiyeTürkiye-in-EuropeTurkmenistanTuvaUkraineUtahUzbekistanVermontVietnamVirginiaWashingtonWest HimalayaWest SiberiaWest VirginiaWisconsinWyomingXinjiangYakutiyaYemenYukon

### Introduced

Andaman Is.Argentina NortheastCanary Is.Cape VerdeCook Is.CubaCyprusDominican RepublicEl SalvadorLeeward Is.New CaledoniaNew South WalesNew Zealand NorthPuerto RicoRéunionSouth AustraliaTasmaniaTongaTrinidad-TobagoVenezuelaVictoriaWestern AustraliaWindward Is.

## Accepted species

The full list is on https://floreboard.com/en/plants/iris/#species.

## Historic plates

Plates in date order; the printed names are kept as they appear, current names are on the species pages and the topic page.

- [](https://floreboard.com/plants/plates/bm-686.jpg)Iris XiphiumCurtis's Botanical Magazine · 686 · 1803, Sydenham Edwards
- [](https://floreboard.com/plants/plates/les-liliacees-6-351.jpg)Iris FœtidissimaLes Liliacées · 351 · 1812, Pierre-Joseph Redouté
- [](https://floreboard.com/plants/plates/botanical-cabinet-1650.jpg)Iris ruthenicaThe Botanical Cabinet · 1650 · 1831, George Loddiges
- [](https://floreboard.com/plants/plates/favourite-flowers-iris-pumila.jpg)Iris pumilaFavourite Flowers of Garden and Greenhouse · Pl. 254 · 1897,

## Growing and cut-flower handling

The RHS advises planting bulb irises in a sunny spot with well-drained soil as soon as possible after purchase, at least 5–7.5 cm apart; planting up to 15 cm deep helps them flower more reliably the next year.

Floralife says cut irises are normally harvested at the “pencil stage”, when a line of colour projects from the sheathing leaves; when buying, make sure the flower tips are not curled or dried, or the bloom won’t open. Store at 1–3 °C and 75–85% relative humidity; vase life is 3–9 days and ethylene sensitivity is low. Keep them cool, away from draughts, radiators and direct sun, as the warmer the room the shorter the vase life; in foam they are short-lived and prone to leaf yellowing, so keep the foam well soaked, and a bulb flower food maintains the foliage. The ASPCA lists iris as toxic to dogs, cats and horses, with pentacyclic terpenoids most concentrated in the rhizomes.

## Further reading

- [Flower guide](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/iris/)
- [Reference library](https://floreboard.com/en/library/)

## References

- [WCVP · World Checklist of Vascular Plants (via ChecklistBank dataset 2232)](https://www.checklistbank.org/dataset/2232) · accessed 2026-10-24
- [Kew (POWO data on the ColPlanta site) · Iris native range](https://colplanta.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:326330-2/general-information)
- [RHS · How to grow bulb irises](https://www.rhs.org.uk/plants/iris/bulb/growing-guide)
- [Floralife · Iris care and handling](https://floralife.com/flowers/iris/)
- [ASPCA Animal Poison Control · Iris](https://www.aspca.org/pet-care/animal-poison-control/toxic-and-non-toxic-plants/iris)

Names, places of publication, synonyms and distribution checked against WCVP (2026-10-24); the text follows the cited sources and awaits specialist review.


---

<!-- https://floreboard.com/en/plants/hyacinthus/ -->

Choix des plus belles fleurs · 100 · 1827–1833 · Pierre-Joseph Redouté · public domain

# Hyacinthus Tourn. ex L.

hyacinths · Asparagaceae

- **Accepted name:** Hyacinthus Tourn. ex L.
- **First published:** Sp. Pl.: 316 (1753)
- **Family:** Asparagaceae
- **Accepted species:** 3 (including 0 natural hybrids)
- **Native range:** 6 TDWG regions, Türkiye and the Levant to Iran and Turkmenistan
- **Common names:** hyacinths
- **Databases:** [POWO](https://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:24372-1) · [IPNI](https://www.ipni.org/n/24372-1) · [WCVP](https://www.checklistbank.org/dataset/2232/taxon/278565) · [Catalogue of Life](https://www.catalogueoflife.org/data/taxon/8VYDJ) · [GBIF](https://www.gbif.org/species/2766192)

## Overview

In WCVP, Hyacinthus is placed in the asparagus family, Asparagaceae, and is a very small genus of just three accepted species. The hyacinths of florists and gardens are all cultivars of Hyacinthus orientalis, which WCVP records as native to Türkiye, Lebanon–Syria, Palestine and Iraq; the other two species, H. litwinowii and H. transcaspicus, come from Iran and Turkmenistan. The RHS describes them as highly fragrant spring bulbs for pots indoors and for bedding.

## Classification and naming

Linnaeus published the genus in Species Plantarum in 1753. WCVP records no generic synonyms; the three accepted species are listed below. The plate above is from Redouté’s Choix des plus belles fleurs, plate 100, inscribed in French “Jacinthe d’orient, variété rose”, a pink hyacinth.

| Genus name | Published in |
| --- | --- |

## Distribution

WCVP records the genus as native to 6 TDWG botanical regions and introduced in 20 more.

IranIraqLebanon-SyriaPalestineTürkiyeTurkmenistan

### Introduced

ArkansasBulgariaCaliforniaCubaCyprusFranceGermanyGreat BritainGreeceHaitiIrelandItalyKoreaMexico CentralNetherlandsNW. Balkan Pen.PennsylvaniaSardegnaSiciliaTexas

## Accepted species

The full list is on https://floreboard.com/en/plants/hyacinthus/#species.

## Historic plates

Plates in date order; the printed names are kept as they appear, current names are on the species pages and the topic page.

- [](https://floreboard.com/plants/plates/bot-mag-937.jpg)Hyacinthus orientalisCurtis's Botanical Magazine · 937 · 1806, Sydenham Edwards
- [](https://floreboard.com/plants/plates/choix-100.jpg)Hyacinthus orientalisChoix des plus belles fleurs · 100 · 1827–1833, Pierre-Joseph Redouté
- [](https://floreboard.com/plants/plates/american-flora-1-48.jpg)Common HyacinthThe American Flora · 48 · 1855,
- [](https://floreboard.com/plants/plates/favourite-flowers-hyacinthus-orientalis.jpg)Hyacinthus orientalisFavourite Flowers of Garden and Greenhouse · Pl. 277 · 1897,

## Forcing indoors and safety

For early flowers indoors, the RHS advises buying bulbs labelled “prepared”: they have been heat-treated to flower earlier and usually cost more; for Christmas flowers, allow 10–12 weeks for good root and shoot growth. If the flower stalk fails to emerge or stays hidden among the leaves, the room is probably too warm, so move the pot somewhere cooler. Cut off the flower stalk at the base when the flowers fade.

The ASPCA lists hyacinth as toxic to dogs, cats and horses, possibly through narcissus-like alkaloids; signs include intense vomiting, diarrhoea (occasionally with blood), depression and tremors.

## Further reading

- [Flower guide](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/hyacinth/)
- [Reference library](https://floreboard.com/en/library/)

## References

- [WCVP · World Checklist of Vascular Plants (via ChecklistBank dataset 2232)](https://www.checklistbank.org/dataset/2232) · accessed 2026-10-24
- [RHS · How to grow hyacinths](https://www.rhs.org.uk/plants/hyacinth/growing-guide)
- [ASPCA Animal Poison Control · Hyacinth (Hyacinthus orientalis)](https://www.aspca.org/pet-care/animal-poison-control/toxic-and-non-toxic-plants/hyacinth)

Names, places of publication, synonyms and distribution checked against WCVP (2026-10-24); the text follows the cited sources and awaits specialist review.


---

<!-- https://floreboard.com/en/plants/anemone/ -->

Curtis's Botanical Magazine · 841 · 1805 · Sydenham Edwards · public domain

# Anemone L.

anemones · Ranunculaceae

- **Accepted name:** Anemone L.
- **First published:** Sp. Pl.: 538 (1753)
- **Family:** Ranunculaceae
- **Accepted species:** 113 (including 7 natural hybrids)
- **Native range:** 181 TDWG regions, temperate and subtropical regions, chiefly north temperate
- **Common names:** anemones
- **Databases:** [POWO](https://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:330847-2) · [IPNI](https://www.ipni.org/n/330847-2) · [WCVP](https://www.checklistbank.org/dataset/2232/taxon/2637982) · [Catalogue of Life](https://www.catalogueoflife.org/data/taxon/VXV) · [GBIF](https://www.gbif.org/species/3016227)

## Overview

Anemone belongs to the buttercup family, Ranunculaceae; Kew gives its native range as temperate and subtropical regions. Flora of Somalia gives some 60–70 species (excluding Hepatica and Pulsatilla), almost cosmopolitan and especially north temperate; WCVP also keeps those two genera apart, and the species it accepts are listed below.

The florist’s anemone is the poppy anemone, Anemone coronaria, which WCVP records as native around the Mediterranean, from Portugal and Spain to Türkiye, the Caucasus and Iran. The RHS calls it one of the most popular Mediterranean anemones, with bright flowers and dark centres on stems up to 40 cm; its De Caen Group, with showy blooms on long clear stems, is often grown for cutting.

## Classification and characters

Linnaeus published the genus in Species Plantarum in 1753. Flora of Somalia and Flora of Tropical East Africa describe perennial herbs with lobed or dissected basal leaves; the flowering stem usually carries a whorl of three involucral leaves; the flowers are regular, usually solitary, with five to many petal-like sepals and no petals; stamens are numerous, the outer ones sometimes sterile; and the many one-ovuled carpels ripen into achenes with persistent styles. The bright “petals” of an anemone are therefore sepals.

| Genus name | Published in |
| --- | --- |
| Abalemis Raf. | Actes Soc. Linn. Bordeaux 6: 262 (1834) |
| Abelemis Raf. ex Britton | Ann. New York Acad. Sci. 6: 223 (1892) |
| Aiolon Lunell | Amer. Midl. Naturalist 4: 359 (1916) |
| Anemonanthea Gray | Nat. Arr. Brit. Pl. 2: 724 (1821 publ. 1822) |
| Anemonoides Mill. | Gard. Dict. Abr., ed. 4.: [s.p.] (1754) |
| Arsenjevia Starod. | Bot. Zhurn. (Moscow & Leningrad) 79: 1344 (1989) |
| Flammara Hill | Veg. Syst., ed. 16: 27 (1770) |
| Hartiana Raf. | Neogenyton: 2 (1825) |
| Nemorosa Ruppius ex Nieuwl. | Amer. Midl. Naturalist 3: 321 (1914) |
| Oriba Adans. | Fam. Pl. 2: 459 (1763) |
| Pulsatilloides (DC.) Starod. | Vetrenitsy: Sist. i Evol.: 124 (1991) |
| Tamuria Starod. | Vetrenitsy: Sist. i Evol.: 122 (1991) |

## Distribution

WCVP records the genus as native to 181 TDWG botanical regions and introduced in 2 more.

Native regions (181)

AfghanistanAlabamaAlaskaAlbaniaAlbertaAlgeriaAltayAmurArgentina NortheastArgentina NorthwestArgentina SouthArizonaArkansasAssamAustriaBalearesBaltic StatesBelarusBelgiumBoliviaBrazil SouthBrazil SoutheastBritish ColumbiaBulgariaBuryatiyaCaliforniaCentral European RussiaChile CentralChile SouthChina North-CentralChina South-CentralChina SoutheastChitaColoradoConnecticutCorseCyprusCzechia-SlovakiaDelawareDenmarkDistrict of ColumbiaDR CongoEast Aegean Is.East European RussiaEast HimalayaEcuadorEgyptEthiopiaFinlandFloridaFranceGeorgiaGermanyGreat BritainGreeceHungaryIdahoIllinoisIndianaInner MongoliaIowaIranIraqIrelandIrkutskItalyJapanJuan Fernández Is.KamchatkaKansasKazakhstanKentuckyKenyaKhabarovskKirgizstanKoreaKrasnoyarskKritiKrymKuril Is.LabradorLaosLebanon-SyriaLibyaLouisianaMagadanMaineMalayaManchuriaManitobaMarylandMassachusettsMexico NortheastMexico NorthwestMichiganMinnesotaMississippiMissouriMongoliaMontanaMoroccoMyanmarNebraskaNepalNetherlandsNevadaNew BrunswickNew HampshireNew JerseyNew MexicoNew YorkNewfoundlandNorth CarolinaNorth CaucasusNorth DakotaNorth European RussiaNorthwest European RussiaNorthwest TerritoriesNorwayNova ScotiaNunavutNW. Balkan Pen.OhioOklahomaOntarioOregonPakistanPalestineParaguayPennsylvaniaPeruPolandPortugalPrimoryeQinghaiQuébecRhode I.RomaniaSakhalinSardegnaSaskatchewanSiciliaSinaiSomaliaSouth CarolinaSouth DakotaSouth European RussiaSpainSudan-South SudanSumateraSwedenSwitzerlandTadzhikistanTaiwanTanzaniaTennesseeTexasTibetTranscaucasusTunisiaTürkiyeTürkiye-in-EuropeTurkmenistanTuvaUgandaUkraineUruguayUtahUzbekistanVermontVietnamVirginiaWashingtonWest HimalayaWest SiberiaWest VirginiaWisconsinWyomingXinjiangYakutiyaYukon

### Introduced

New Zealand SouthRéunion

## Accepted species

The full list is on https://floreboard.com/en/plants/anemone/#species.

## Historic plates

Plates in date order; the printed names are kept as they appear, current names are on the species pages and the topic page.

- [](https://floreboard.com/plants/plates/bm-841.jpg)Anemone coronariaCurtis's Botanical Magazine · 841 · 1805, Sydenham Edwards
- [](https://floreboard.com/plants/plates/botanical-cabinet-1660.jpg)Anemone palmata luteaThe Botanical Cabinet · 1660 · 1831, George Loddiges
- [](https://floreboard.com/plants/plates/favourite-flowers-3.jpg)Anemone coronariaFavourite Flowers of Garden and Greenhouse · Pl. 3 · 1896,
- [](https://floreboard.com/plants/plates/favourite-flowers-4.jpg)Anemone hortensisFavourite Flowers of Garden and Greenhouse · 4 · 1896,

## Growing and cut-flower handling

The RHS advises planting Mediterranean anemones such as the De Caen and St Brigid Groups outdoors in spring; soak dry rhizomes or tubers for several hours or overnight first to rehydrate them and start growth.

Floralife advises harvesting when the buds are fully coloured and 25–50% open, and buying strong stems with flowers closed or just opening. Store at 1–3 °C and 75–85% relative humidity; vase life is 3–8 days. Anemones are highly ethylene-sensitive and, untreated, shatter their petals and last less long; the flowers close naturally in cold and dark. Stems tend to bend, so upright shipping helps; avoid softened water.

## Further reading

- [Flower guide](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/anemone/)
- [Reference library](https://floreboard.com/en/library/)

## References

- [WCVP · World Checklist of Vascular Plants (via ChecklistBank dataset 2232)](https://www.checklistbank.org/dataset/2232) · accessed 2026-10-24
- [Kew (POWO data on the ColPlanta site) · Anemone, with genus descriptions from Flora of Somalia and Flora of Tropical East Africa](https://colplanta.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:330847-2/general-information)
- [RHS · How to grow spring-flowering anemones](https://www.rhs.org.uk/plants/anemone/spring-flowering/growing-guide)
- [Floralife · Anemone care and handling](https://floralife.com/flowers/anemone/)

Names, places of publication, synonyms and distribution checked against WCVP (2026-10-24); the text follows the cited sources and awaits specialist review.


---

<!-- https://floreboard.com/en/plants/delphinium/ -->

Edwards's Botanical Register · Tab. 38 · 1838 · Sarah Anne Drake · public domain

# Delphinium Tourn. ex L.

delphiniums and larkspurs · Ranunculaceae

- **Accepted name:** Delphinium Tourn. ex L.
- **First published:** Sp. Pl.: 530 (1753)
- **Family:** Ranunculaceae
- **Accepted species:** 546 (including 7 natural hybrids)
- **Native range:** 154 TDWG regions, temperate and subtropical Old World, and North America
- **Common names:** delphiniums and larkspurs, larkspurs and delphiniums
- **Databases:** [POWO](https://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:328251-2) · [IPNI](https://www.ipni.org/n/328251-2) · [WCVP](https://www.checklistbank.org/dataset/2232/taxon/2759373) · [Catalogue of Life](https://www.catalogueoflife.org/data/taxon/42R2) · [GBIF](https://www.gbif.org/species/3033687)

## Overview

Delphinium belongs to the buttercup family, Ranunculaceae; Kew gives its native range as the temperate and subtropical Old World and North America. The florist’s “larkspurs and delphiniums” cover both the perennial delphiniums and the annual larkspur: WCVP has merged Consolida into Delphinium, so the common annual larkspur is now Delphinium ajacis L.

The RHS describes perennial delphiniums as tall plants with vivid flower spikes in early summer, good in borders and as cut flowers. Garden groups include the Elatum Group (the tallest spikes), the Belladonna Group (loosely branched with many side spikes, particularly good for cutting) and the Pacific hybrids (similar to Elatum but smaller overall). The Elatum Group takes its name from D. elatum, which WCVP records as native from central Europe to Siberia, Mongolia and Xinjiang.

## Classification and characters

Linnaeus published the genus in Species Plantarum in 1753. Flora Zambesiaca describes annual or perennial herbs with palmately divided leaves and racemes or panicles of zygomorphic flowers; the five petal-like sepals are the showiest part, the back one drawn out into a spur; there are two to five petals, the two at the back also spurred, more or less joined and fitting into the sepal spur; stamens are numerous; and one to five carpels ripen into follicles.

The plate above is from Edwards’s Botanical Register (1838), plate 38, named in the text Delphinium intermedium var. palmatifidum; WCVP places D. intermedium under D. elatum.

| Genus name | Published in |
| --- | --- |
| Aconitella Spach | Hist. Nat. Vég. 7: 358 (1838) |
| Aconitopsis Kem.-Nath. | Trudy Tbilissk. Bot. Inst. 7: 125 (1940) |
| Ceratostanthus Schur | Enum. Pl. Transsilv.: 30 (1866) |
| Chienia W.T.Wang | Acta Phytotax. Sin. 9: 103 (1964) |
| Consolida Gray | Nat. Arr. Brit. Pl. 2: 711 (1821 publ. 1822) |
| Delphinastrum Spach | Hist. Nat. Vég. 7: 336 (1838) |
| Diedropetala Galushko | Novosti Sist. Vyssh. Rast. 13: 251 (1976) |
| Phledinium Spach | Hist. Nat. Vég. 7: 351 (1838) |
| Phtirium Raf. | Précis Découv. Somiol.: 29 (1814) |
| Plectrornis Raf. ex Lunell | Amer. Midl. Naturalist 4: 361 (1916) |
| Pseudodelphinium H.Duman, Vural, Aytaç & Adıgüzel | Turkish J. Bot. 36: 428 (2012) |

## Distribution

WCVP records the genus as native to 154 TDWG botanical regions and introduced in 29 more.

Native regions (154)

AfghanistanAlabamaAlaskaAlbaniaAlbertaAlgeriaAltayAmurArizonaArkansasAssamAustriaBalearesBaltic StatesBelarusBelgiumBritish ColumbiaBulgariaBuryatiyaCaliforniaCameroonCentral European RussiaChina North-CentralChina South-CentralChina SoutheastChitaColoradoCorseCyprusCzechia-SlovakiaDistrict of ColumbiaDjiboutiDR CongoEast Aegean Is.East European RussiaEast HimalayaEgyptEritreaEthiopiaFloridaFranceGeorgiaGermanyGreeceHungaryIdahoIllinoisIndiaIndianaInner MongoliaIowaIranIraqIrkutskItalyKamchatkaKansasKazakhstanKentuckyKenyaKhabarovskKirgizstanKoreaKrasnoyarskKritiKrymKuril Is.Lebanon-SyriaLibyaLouisianaMadeiraMagadanMalawiManchuriaManitobaMarylandMexico CentralMexico GulfMexico NortheastMexico NorthwestMexico SouthwestMinnesotaMississippiMissouriMongoliaMontanaMoroccoMozambiqueMyanmarNebraskaNepalNevadaNew MexicoNigeriaNorth CarolinaNorth CaucasusNorth DakotaNorth European RussiaNorthwest European RussiaNorthwest TerritoriesNW. Balkan Pen.OhioOklahomaOmanOregonPakistanPalestinePennsylvaniaPolandPortugalPrimoryeQinghaiRomaniaRwandaSardegnaSaskatchewanSaudi ArabiaSiciliaSinaiSouth CarolinaSouth DakotaSouth European RussiaSpainSudan-South SudanSwitzerlandTadzhikistanTanzaniaTennesseeTexasThailandTibetTranscaucasusTunisiaTürkiyeTürkiye-in-EuropeTurkmenistanTuvaUgandaUkraineUtahUzbekistanVietnamVirginiaWashingtonWest HimalayaWest SiberiaWest VirginiaWestern SaharaWisconsinWyomingXinjiangYakutiyaYukonZambia

### Introduced

Aleutian Is.AzoresBangladeshCanary Is.ConnecticutDelawareDenmarkEcuadorEl SalvadorFinlandGreat BritainGuatemalaHondurasIrelandJapanMassachusettsMichiganNew JerseyNew South WalesNew YorkNew Zealand NorthNew Zealand SouthNorwayOntarioRhode I.South AustraliaSwedenVermontWestern Australia

## Accepted species

The full list is on https://floreboard.com/en/plants/delphinium/#species.

## Historic plates

Plates in date order; the printed names are kept as they appear, current names are on the species pages and the topic page.

- [](https://floreboard.com/plants/plates/bot-reg-1838-38.jpg)Delphinium intermedium var. palmatifidumEdwards's Botanical Register · Tab. 38 · 1838, Sarah Anne Drake

## Growing, cut-flower handling and safety

The RHS advises staking tall cultivars and sheltering them from wind; slugs and snails, which devour young growth in spring, are the main pest to control.

Floralife says cut delphiniums are normally harvested with one or two open florets at the base of the spike. Store at 1–3 °C and 75–85% relative humidity; vase life is 4–12 days. They are highly ethylene-sensitive and shatter, so make sure stems were treated with an ethylene action inhibitor, and avoid stems stored more than three days or already shedding. Vase life in foam is shorter than in a vase; re-cut and hydrate well, ideally overnight, before arranging, and separate stems carefully as the spike tips tangle.

The RHS and the ASPCA both warn that all parts are poisonous. The RHS notes that contact with the foliage may irritate skin; the ASPCA lists Delphinium as toxic to dogs, cats and horses, its diterpene alkaloids causing neuromuscular paralysis, with constipation, colic, salivation, tremors, stiffness, weakness and convulsions, and death from heart failure or respiratory paralysis in severe cases.

## Further reading

- [Flower guide](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/delphinium/)
- [Reference library](https://floreboard.com/en/library/)

## References

- [WCVP · World Checklist of Vascular Plants (via ChecklistBank dataset 2232)](https://www.checklistbank.org/dataset/2232) · accessed 2026-10-24
- [Kew (POWO data on the ColPlanta site) · Delphinium, with genus descriptions from Flora Zambesiaca and Flora of Tropical East Africa](https://colplanta.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:328251-2/general-information)
- [RHS · How to grow perennial delphiniums](https://www.rhs.org.uk/plants/delphinium/perennial/growing-guide)
- [Floralife · Delphinium care and handling](https://floralife.com/flowers/delphinium/)
- [ASPCA Animal Poison Control · Larkspur (Delphinium species)](https://www.aspca.org/pet-care/animal-poison-control/toxic-and-non-toxic-plants/larkspur)

Names, places of publication, synonyms and distribution checked against WCVP (2026-10-24); the text follows the cited sources and awaits specialist review.


---

<!-- https://floreboard.com/en/plants/solidago/ -->

Hortus Eystettensis · Classis Aestiva, Fol. 134 · 1640 · public domain

# Solidago L.

goldenrods · Asteraceae

- **Accepted name:** Solidago L.
- **First published:** Sp. Pl.: 878 (1753)
- **Family:** Asteraceae
- **Accepted species:** 151 (including 11 natural hybrids)
- **Native range:** 178 TDWG regions, the Americas, the Azores, temperate Eurasia and north-west Africa
- **Common names:** goldenrods, Solidago
- **Databases:** [POWO](https://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:60436299-2) · [IPNI](https://www.ipni.org/n/60436299-2) · [WCVP](https://www.checklistbank.org/dataset/2232/taxon/3133769) · [Catalogue of Life](https://www.catalogueoflife.org/data/taxon/7JH2) · [GBIF](https://www.gbif.org/species/5388868)

## Overview

Solidago belongs to the daisy family, Asteraceae. Kew gives its native range as North and Central America and the Caribbean, Bolivia to Brazil and southern South America, the Azores, temperate Eurasia and north-west Africa. The golden filler sold by Chinese florists as huangying (“yellow oriole”) belongs to this genus.

In WCVP, Canada goldenrod, S. canadensis, is native to North America and introduced in about 80 regions worldwide, including north-central, south-central and south-east China.

## Classification and naming

Linnaeus published the genus in Species Plantarum in 1753; Oligoneuron and other genera are now included (see below). The plate above is folio 134 of the summer section of Hortus Eystettensis (1640 edition): figure II is inscribed “Virga aurea” (golden rod), the pre-Linnaean name for Solidago virgaurea.

| Genus name | Published in |
| --- | --- |
| Actipsis Raf. | Fl. Tellur. 2: 43 (1837) |
| Brachychaeta Torr. & A.Gray | Fl. N. Amer. 2: 194 (1842) |
| Dasiorima Raf. | Fl. Tellur. 2: 43 (1837) |
| Dectis Raf. | Fl. Tellur. 2: 43 (1837) |
| Leioligo Raf. | Fl. Tellur. 2: 42 (1837) |
| Lepiactis Raf. | Fl. Tellur. 2: 43 (1837) |
| Oligoneuron Small | Fl. S.E. U.S.: 1188, 1339 (1903) |
| Unamia Greene | Leafl. Bot. Observ. Crit. 1: 6 (1903) |

## Distribution

WCVP records the genus as native to 178 TDWG botanical regions and introduced in 32 more.

Native regions (178)

AfghanistanAlabamaAlaskaAlbaniaAlbertaAleutian Is.AlgeriaAltayAmurArgentina NortheastArgentina NorthwestArgentina SouthArizonaArkansasAssamAustriaAzoresBahamasBaltic StatesBelarusBelgiumBelizeBermudaBoliviaBrazil NortheastBrazil SouthBrazil SoutheastBrazil West-CentralBritish ColumbiaBulgariaBuryatiyaCaliforniaCambodiaCentral European RussiaChile CentralChile NorthChile SouthChina North-CentralChina South-CentralChina SoutheastChitaColoradoConnecticutCorseCubaCzechia-SlovakiaDelawareDenmarkDistrict of ColumbiaDominican RepublicEast Aegean Is.East European RussiaEast HimalayaFinlandFloridaFranceGeorgiaGermanyGreat BritainGreeceGuatemalaHungaryIdahoIllinoisIndianaInner MongoliaIowaIranIrelandIrkutskItalyJapanJuan Fernández Is.KamchatkaKansasKazakhstanKentuckyKhabarovskKirgizstanKoreaKrasnoyarskKrymKuril Is.LabradorLaosLebanon-SyriaLouisianaMagadanMaineManchuriaManitobaMarylandMassachusettsMexico CentralMexico GulfMexico NortheastMexico NorthwestMexico SoutheastMexico SouthwestMichiganMinnesotaMississippiMissouriMongoliaMontanaMoroccoNansei-shotoNebraskaNepalNetherlandsNevadaNew BrunswickNew HampshireNew JerseyNew MexicoNew YorkNewfoundlandNorth CarolinaNorth CaucasusNorth DakotaNorth European RussiaNorthwest European RussiaNorthwest TerritoriesNorwayNova ScotiaNunavutNW. Balkan Pen.OhioOklahomaOntarioOregonPakistanPalestineParaguayPennsylvaniaPhilippinesPolandPortugalPrimoryePrince Edward I.Puerto RicoQuébecRhode I.RomaniaSakhalinSardegnaSaskatchewanSouth CarolinaSouth DakotaSouth European RussiaSpainSwedenSwitzerlandTadzhikistanTaiwanTennesseeTexasTranscaucasusTunisiaTürkiyeTürkiye-in-EuropeTuvaUkraineUruguayUtahUzbekistanVermontVietnamVirginiaWashingtonWest HimalayaWest SiberiaWest VirginiaWisconsinWyomingXinjiangYakutiyaYukon

### Introduced

BorneoColombiaCook Is.FijiHainanHawaiiIndiaJawaLeeward Is.Lesser Sunda Is.MadeiraMalayaMauritiusNew South WalesNew Zealand NorthNew Zealand SouthNicaraguaNorthern TerritoryPeruQinghaiQueenslandSociety Is.South AustraliaSri LankaSulawesiSumateraTasmaniaThailandTibetTurkmenistanVictoriaWestern Australia

## Accepted species

The full list is on https://floreboard.com/en/plants/solidago/#species.

## Historic plates

Plates in date order; the printed names are kept as they appear, current names are on the species pages and the topic page.

- [](https://floreboard.com/plants/plates/hortus-eystettensis-solidago.jpg)Virga aureaHortus Eystettensis · Classis Aestiva, Fol. 134 · 1640,
- [](https://floreboard.com/plants/plates/plantarum-icones-solidago-virgaurea.jpg)Solidago virga-aureaPlantarum indigenarum et exoticarum icones ad vivum coloratae · 1790,
- [](https://floreboard.com/plants/plates/favourite-flowers-solidago-canadensis.jpg)Solidago canadensisFavourite Flowers of Garden and Greenhouse · Pl. 127 · 1897,

## Cut-flower handling

Floralife advises harvesting when the clusters of flower heads are golden yellow and the ray florets are beginning to open. Store at 1–3 °C and 75–85% relative humidity; vase life is 7–14 days and ethylene sensitivity is usually low. Goldenrod drinks a lot, so check solution levels daily or it dehydrates quickly; the leaves are prone to yellowing, which an anti-leaf-yellowing treatment helps; and the flowers and leaves should be free of disease and pests.

## Further reading

- [Flower guide](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/solidago/)
- [Reference library](https://floreboard.com/en/library/)

## References

- [WCVP · World Checklist of Vascular Plants (via ChecklistBank dataset 2232)](https://www.checklistbank.org/dataset/2232) · accessed 2026-10-24
- [Kew (POWO data on the ColPlanta site) · Solidago native range](https://colplanta.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:60436299-2/general-information)
- [Floralife · Solidago care and handling](https://floralife.com/flowers/solidago/)

Names, places of publication, synonyms and distribution checked against WCVP (2026-10-24); the text follows the cited sources and awaits specialist review.


---

<!-- https://floreboard.com/en/plants/protea/ -->

Curtis's Botanical Magazine · 770 · 1804 · Sydenham Edwards · public domain

# Protea L.

proteas · Proteaceae

- **Accepted name:** Protea L.
- **First published:** Mant. Pl. 2: 187 (1771)
- **Family:** Proteaceae
- **Accepted species:** 107 (including 0 natural hybrids)
- **Native range:** 35 TDWG regions, tropical and southern Africa, richest in the Cape
- **Common names:** proteas
- **Databases:** [POWO](https://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:331879-2) · [IPNI](https://www.ipni.org/n/331879-2) · [WCVP](https://www.checklistbank.org/dataset/2232/taxon/2564228) · [Catalogue of Life](https://www.catalogueoflife.org/data/taxon/63PHM) · [GBIF](https://www.gbif.org/species/5428464)

## Overview

Protea belongs to the protea family, Proteaceae. WCVP records the genus across Africa, from the Cape Provinces to Nigeria, Ethiopia and Kenya in tropical Africa, though most species are South African. SANBI notes that the family had already split into two subfamilies before Gondwana broke up about 140 million years ago; southern Africa has about 360 species, more than 330 of them confined to the Cape Floral Kingdom. The genus is named after Proteus, the Greek god who could change his shape at will, for its great variety of habit, flower size and colour.

The best known is the king protea, P. cynaroides, South Africa’s national flower and a famous cut flower. SANBI describes its “flower” as a head of many florets surrounded by large coloured bracts, 120–300 mm across, from creamy white to deep crimson, the silvery pale pink forms being most prized. Because forms from different localities flower at different times, it can be grown for export markets through the year, and it is now cultivated widely in New Zealand, Australia and Hawaii.

## Classification and naming

WCVP cites Linnaeus’s Mantissa Plantarum (1771) as the place of publication. SANBI’s account of the silver tree, Leucadendron argenteum, tells the story: Linnaeus based his definition of Protea on the silver tree, calling it Protea argentea; in 1807 and 1810 Salisbury and Robert Brown reorganised the family into the genera recognised today, and Brown redefined and conserved the name Leucadendron, based on the silver tree. That is why Leucadendron appears among the generic synonyms below.

The king protea’s epithet cynaroides means “like an artichoke”, after its bud (SANBI). The plate above is P. cynaroides from Curtis’s Botanical Magazine, plate 770 (1804).

| Genus name | Published in |
| --- | --- |
| Chrysodendron Vaill. ex Meisn. | A.P.de Candolle, Prodr. 14: 230 (1856) |
| Erodendrum Salisb. | Parad. Lond. 1: t. 67 (1807) |
| Leucadendron L. | Sp. Pl.: 91 (1753) |
| Pleuranthe Salisb. | Cult. Prot.: 49 (1809) |
| Serraria Adans. | Fam. Pl. 2: 284 (1763) |

## Distribution

WCVP records the genus as native to 35 TDWG botanical regions.

AngolaBeninBotswanaBurkinaBurundiCameroonCape ProvincesCaprivi StripCentral African RepublicChadDR CongoEritreaEswatiniEthiopiaFree StateGhanaGuineaIvory CoastKenyaKwaZulu-NatalLesothoMalawiMaliMozambiqueNamibiaNigeriaNorthern ProvincesRwandaSierra LeoneSudan-South SudanTanzaniaTogoUgandaZambiaZimbabwe

## Accepted species

The full list is on https://floreboard.com/en/plants/protea/#species.

## Historic plates

Plates in date order; the printed names are kept as they appear, current names are on the species pages and the topic page.

- [](https://floreboard.com/plants/plates/bot-mag-10-346.jpg)Protea melliferaCurtis's Botanical Magazine · 346 · 1796,
- [](https://floreboard.com/plants/plates/bm-770.jpg)Protea cynaroidesCurtis's Botanical Magazine · 770 · 1804, Sydenham Edwards
- [](https://floreboard.com/plants/plates/bot-mag-698.jpg)Protea scolymusCurtis's Botanical Magazine · 698 · 1804, Sydenham Edwards

## Ecology and cut-flower handling

SANBI notes that king proteas are pollinated by birds such as sugarbirds and sunbirds, and grow in fire-prone vegetation where natural fires come every ten to thirty years, resprouting from a thick underground woody stem (lignotuber). The florets open over a long period, which makes the head a lasting garden sight and a long-lived cut flower.

Floralife notes that proteas are not tropical flowers that must never be refrigerated, but prefer milder chilling: 4–10 °C, ideally 4 °C at 85% humidity. Vase life is 10–20 days, ethylene sensitivity is low and they perform well in foam. Stems are cut when mature (no soft tips) and the flowers when at least the outer florets are fully expanded; check that the leaves are not black. Leaf blackening is linked to low light and storage conditions: keep proteas in a well-lit place, use flower food and avoid high temperatures; decaying leaves in buckets and lack of hydration also contribute.

## Further reading

- [Flower guide](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/protea/)
- [Reference library](https://floreboard.com/en/library/)

## References

- [WCVP · World Checklist of Vascular Plants (via ChecklistBank dataset 2232)](https://www.checklistbank.org/dataset/2232) · accessed 2026-10-24
- [SANBI PlantZAfrica · Protea cynaroides (H.G. Jamieson, 2001, updated 2019)](https://pza.sanbi.org/protea-cynaroides)
- [SANBI PlantZAfrica · Leucadendron argenteum (Kirstenbosch)](https://pza.sanbi.org/leucadendron-argenteum)
- [Floralife · Protea care and handling](https://floralife.com/flowers/protea/)

Names, places of publication, synonyms and distribution checked against WCVP (2026-10-24); the text follows the cited sources and awaits specialist review.


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<!-- https://floreboard.com/en/plants/leucadendron/ -->

The Paradisus Londinensis · Tab. 75 · 1807 · William Hooker · public domain

# Leucadendron R.Br.

conebushes · Proteaceae

- **Accepted name:** Leucadendron R.Br.
- **First published:** Trans. Linn. Soc. London 10: 50 (1810)
- **Family:** Proteaceae
- **Accepted species:** 85 (including 0 natural hybrids)
- **Native range:** 2 TDWG regions, the Cape Provinces to KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa
- **Common names:** conebushes, Leucadendron
- **Databases:** [POWO](https://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:331712-2) · [IPNI](https://www.ipni.org/n/331712-2) · [WCVP](https://www.checklistbank.org/dataset/2232/taxon/3012403) · [Catalogue of Life](https://www.catalogueoflife.org/data/taxon/5DQH) · [GBIF](https://www.gbif.org/species/8062099)

## Overview

Leucadendron belongs to the protea family, Proteaceae, and occurs only in South Africa: Kew gives its native range as the Cape Provinces to KwaZulu-Natal. SANBI gives 83 species, most in the Western and Eastern Cape with a few outliers in KwaZulu-Natal. All are dioecious shrubs or trees, and the female heads form woody cones in which the fruits are borne, hence the name conebush. Florists use mainly the coloured involucral leaves and foliage.

The name comes from the Greek leukos (white) and dendron (tree), after the silver tree, L. argenteum, on which the genus is based: its leaves are covered on both sides with silky silver hairs, and it is an endangered species found only on the Cape Peninsula (SANBI).

## Classification and naming

According to SANBI, Linnaeus placed the silver tree in Protea; after Salisbury and Robert Brown reorganised the family into its modern genera in 1807–1810, Brown redefined and conserved the name Leucadendron on the silver tree (cited by WCVP as R.Br., 1810). Names Salisbury used, such as Euryspermum, are now synonyms (see below). The plate above, from Paradisus Londinensis (1807), plate 75, is printed Euryspermum salicifolium, now Leucadendron salicifolium.

SANBI describes the male flower heads of the silver tree as bright yellow balls and the female heads as near-spherical cones of overlapping bracts; the seeds carry a plumed appendage and are dispersed by wind.

| Genus name | Published in |
| --- | --- |
| Chasme Salisb. | Parad. Lond. 1: t. 67 (1807) |
| Euryspermum Salisb. | Parad. Lond. 2: t. 75 (1807) |
| Gissonia Salisb. ex Knight | Cult. Prot.: 32 (1809) |
| Vionaea Neck. | Elem. Bot. 1: 107 (1790) |

## Distribution

WCVP records the genus as native to 2 TDWG botanical regions.

Cape ProvincesKwaZulu-Natal

## Accepted species

The full list is on https://floreboard.com/en/plants/leucadendron/#species.

## Historic plates

Plates in date order; the printed names are kept as they appear, current names are on the species pages and the topic page.

- [](https://floreboard.com/plants/plates/paradisus-75.jpg)Euryspermum salicifoliumThe Paradisus Londinensis · Tab. 75 · 1807, William Hooker

## Cut-foliage cultivars and growing

SANBI describes L. salignum as the most widespread species in the protea family, with a long flowering season (May to December) and leaves and bracts ranging from greenish-yellow to vivid orange-red, which makes it an excellent breeding subject; it tolerates hard pruning, suiting large-scale cut-foliage production, and many cultivars and hybrids have been raised. The best known, ‘Safari Sunset’, is a hybrid of L. laureolum × L. salignum grown as an export crop in several countries: a tall shrub to 2.5 m with large deep-red bracts on long stems that open to show cream centres; ‘Silvan Red’ is a hybrid of the same two species with slightly lighter colour. Cultivars and hybrids can only be propagated from cuttings.

The silver foliage of the silver tree is also used in floristry and lasts well in the vase; like most proteas it dislikes soggy soil, still humid air and strong fertilisers, and needs sun, good air circulation and well-drained sandy soil (SANBI).

## Further reading

- [Flower guide](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/leucadendron/)
- [Reference library](https://floreboard.com/en/library/)

## References

- [WCVP · World Checklist of Vascular Plants (via ChecklistBank dataset 2232)](https://www.checklistbank.org/dataset/2232) · accessed 2026-10-24
- [Kew (POWO data on the ColPlanta site) · Leucadendron native range](https://colplanta.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:331712-2/general-information)
- [SANBI PlantZAfrica · Leucadendron argenteum (Kirstenbosch)](https://pza.sanbi.org/leucadendron-argenteum)
- [SANBI PlantZAfrica · Leucadendron salignum (Kirstenbosch)](https://pza.sanbi.org/leucadendron-salignum)

Names, places of publication, synonyms and distribution checked against WCVP (2026-10-24); the text follows the cited sources and awaits specialist review.


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<!-- https://floreboard.com/en/plants/monstera/ -->

Berliner allgemeine Gartenzeitung · Taf. IV · 1857 · public domain

# Monstera Adans.

monsteras · Araceae

- **Accepted name:** Monstera Adans.
- **First published:** Fam. Pl. 2: 470 (1763)
- **Family:** Araceae
- **Accepted species:** 73 (including 0 natural hybrids)
- **Native range:** 29 TDWG regions, Mexico to tropical America
- **Common names:** monsteras
- **Databases:** [POWO](https://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:330206-2) · [IPNI](https://www.ipni.org/n/330206-2) · [WCVP](https://www.checklistbank.org/dataset/2232/taxon/129565) · [Catalogue of Life](https://www.catalogueoflife.org/data/taxon/8VZGZ) · [GBIF](https://www.gbif.org/species/2868125)

## Overview

Monstera belongs to the arum family, Araceae; Kew gives its native range as Mexico to tropical America. The RHS describes these climbers as coming from the tropical forests of southern Mexico and South America; the one most grown indoors is M. deliciosa, which WCVP records as native to southern Mexico and Guatemala. Florists use its large divided leaves as cut foliage.

## Classification and characters

Adanson published the genus in 1763. CATE Araceae describes evergreen climbing herbs whose leaves are often conspicuously and elaborately perforated; the spathe is boat-shaped, somewhat rolled at the base and white to rose inside; the spadix is stalkless, nearly cylindrical and a little shorter than the spathe; and the berry holds one to three seeds, shedding its prismatic style region when ripe, pulpy within.

The plate above, from the Berliner allgemeine Gartenzeitung (1857), is printed Monstera Lennea C. Koch, a synonym of M. deliciosa in WCVP.

| Genus name | Published in |
| --- | --- |
| Serangium Wood ex Salisb. | Gen. Pl.: 5 (1866) |
| Tornelia Gutierrez ex Schott | Gen. Aroid.: t. 74 (1858) |

## Distribution

WCVP records the genus as native to 29 TDWG botanical regions and introduced in 10 more.

BelizeBoliviaBrazil NorthBrazil NortheastBrazil SouthBrazil SoutheastBrazil West-CentralColombiaCosta RicaEcuadorEl SalvadorFrench GuianaGuatemalaGuyanaHondurasLeeward Is.Mexico CentralMexico GulfMexico NortheastMexico SoutheastMexico SouthwestNetherlands AntillesNicaraguaPanamáPeruSurinameTrinidad-TobagoVenezuelaWindward Is.

### Introduced

AscensionAzoresBalearesBangladeshComorosCook Is.KoreaPuerto RicoSeychellesSociety Is.

## Accepted species

The full list is on https://floreboard.com/en/plants/monstera/#species.

## Historic plates

Plates in date order; the printed names are kept as they appear, current names are on the species pages and the topic page.

- [](https://floreboard.com/plants/plates/plantarum-icones-monstera-adansonii.jpg)Dracontium pertusumPlantarum indigenarum et exoticarum icones ad vivum coloratae · 1791,
- [](https://floreboard.com/plants/plates/berliner-gartenzeitung-1857-4.jpg)Monstera Lennea C. KochBerliner allgemeine Gartenzeitung · Taf. IV · 1857,

## Growing indoors and safety

The RHS notes that the heart-shaped leaves usually only show the characteristic holes once plants are a few years old, with more fenestrations once the plant is climbing; stems produce roots that attach to trees and support the climb, so indoors it benefits from a moss pole. It likes indirect light, as direct sun scorches the leaves; keep it at 18–25 °C all year, and let the compost become almost dry before watering thoroughly. The plants are poisonous: wear gloves when handling them and keep them away from children and pets.

## Further reading

- [Flower guide](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/monstera/)
- [Reference library](https://floreboard.com/en/library/)

## References

- [WCVP · World Checklist of Vascular Plants (via ChecklistBank dataset 2232)](https://www.checklistbank.org/dataset/2232) · accessed 2026-10-24
- [Kew (POWO data on the ColPlanta site) · Monstera, with genus description from CATE Araceae](https://colplanta.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:330206-2/general-information)
- [RHS · How to grow Swiss cheese plants](https://www.rhs.org.uk/plants/swiss-cheese-plants/how-to-grow-swiss-cheese-plants)

Names, places of publication, synonyms and distribution checked against WCVP (2026-10-24); the text follows the cited sources and awaits specialist review.


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<!-- https://floreboard.com/en/plants/spathiphyllum/ -->

L'Illustration horticole · Pl. CCCXCVII · 1880 · public domain

# Spathiphyllum Schott

peace lilies · Araceae

- **Accepted name:** Spathiphyllum Schott
- **First published:** H.W.Schott & S.L.Endlicher, Melet. Bot.: 22 (1832)
- **Family:** Araceae
- **Accepted species:** 76 (including 0 natural hybrids)
- **Native range:** 31 TDWG regions, Mexico to tropical America, with an outlying group in Malesia and the western Pacific
- **Common names:** peace lilies
- **Databases:** [POWO](https://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:30003632-2) · [IPNI](https://www.ipni.org/n/30003632-2) · [WCVP](https://www.checklistbank.org/dataset/2232/taxon/193144) · [Catalogue of Life](https://www.catalogueoflife.org/data/taxon/8W3P6) · [GBIF](https://www.gbif.org/species/2869649)

## Overview

Spathiphyllum belongs to the arum family, Araceae. Kew gives an unusual native range: Mexico to tropical America, plus an outlying group in Malesia and the western Pacific. The RHS notes that the peace lilies grown indoors come from tropical forests in Central America and Colombia and, despite the name, belong to the arum family rather than the lilies. WCVP records the common S. wallisii as native to Colombia and Venezuela.

## Classification and characters

Schott published the genus in 1832. CATE Araceae describes evergreen herbs with a short, erect to creeping stem, usually appearing stemless and sometimes stoloniferous; the spathe is membranous to slightly leathery and fully expanded, usually white, rarely green, turning green in fruit; and the spadix is cylindrical, erect, shorter than the spathe and usually stalked. The plate above is S. patinii from L’Illustration horticole (1880).

| Genus name | Published in |
| --- | --- |
| Amomophyllum Engl. | Gard. Chron., n.s., 7: 139 (1877) |
| Hydnostachyon Liebm. | Vidensk. Meddel. Naturhist. Foren. Kjøbenhavn 1849: 23 (1849) |
| Leucochlamys Poepp. ex Engl. | A.L.P.P.de Candolle & A.C.P.de Candolle, Monogr. Phan. 2: 230 (1879) |
| Massowia K.Koch | Bot. Zeitung (Berlin) 10: 277 (1852) |
| Spathiphyllopsis Teijsm. & Binn. | Natuurk. Tijdschr. Ned.-Indië 25: 400 (1863) |

## Distribution

WCVP records the genus as native to 31 TDWG botanical regions and introduced in 7 more.

BelizeBismarck ArchipelagoBrazil NorthBrazil NortheastBrazil SoutheastBrazil West-CentralCaroline Is.Central American Pacific Is.ColombiaCosta RicaEcuadorEl SalvadorFrench GuianaGuatemalaGuyanaHondurasMalukuMexico CentralMexico GulfMexico SoutheastMexico SouthwestNew GuineaNicaraguaPanamáPeruPhilippinesSolomon Is.SulawesiSurinameTrinidad-TobagoVenezuela

### Introduced

BangladeshComorosCook Is.CubaDominican RepublicPuerto RicoVenezuelan Antilles

## Accepted species

The full list is on https://floreboard.com/en/plants/spathiphyllum/#species.

## Historic plates

Plates in date order; the printed names are kept as they appear, current names are on the species pages and the topic page.

- [](https://floreboard.com/plants/plates/illustration-horticole-159.jpg)Spathiphyllum floribundumL'Illustration horticole · 159 · 1874, L. Stroobant, name from Commons, unverified
- [](https://floreboard.com/plants/plates/illustration-horticole-189.jpg)Spathiphyllum cochlearispathumL'Illustration horticole · 189 · 1874, L. Stroobant, name from Commons, unverified
- [](https://floreboard.com/plants/plates/ih-27-397.jpg)Spathiphyllum Patini, N. E. BrownL'Illustration horticole · Pl. CCCXCVII · 1880,

## Growing indoors and safety

The RHS advises bright, indirect light, such as near a window away from strong summer sun; deep shade slows growth and makes flowering unlikely. Ordinary room temperatures of 12–24 °C suit them, away from radiators and cold draughts. Underwatering makes them droop alarmingly, but they usually recover quickly once watered; fluoride in tap water can damage the foliage, so rainwater or filtered water is better; they prefer moderate humidity. Flowers appear mainly in spring and summer, last for months and fade to green; too little light is the commonest reason for no flowers.

The RHS warns that peace lilies are poisonous: wear gloves and keep them out of reach of children and pets. The ASPCA lists Spathiphyllum as toxic to dogs and cats: its insoluble calcium oxalates cause intense burning and irritation of the mouth, tongue and lips, excessive drooling, vomiting and difficulty swallowing.

## Further reading

- [Reference library](https://floreboard.com/en/library/)

## References

- [WCVP · World Checklist of Vascular Plants (via ChecklistBank dataset 2232)](https://www.checklistbank.org/dataset/2232) · accessed 2026-10-24
- [Kew (POWO data on the ColPlanta site) · Spathiphyllum, with genus description from CATE Araceae](https://colplanta.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:30003632-2/general-information)
- [RHS · How to grow peace lilies](https://www.rhs.org.uk/plants/peace-lilies/how-to-grow-peace-lilies)
- [ASPCA Animal Poison Control · Peace Lily (Spathiphyllum)](https://www.aspca.org/pet-care/animal-poison-control/toxic-and-non-toxic-plants/peace-lily)

Names, places of publication, synonyms and distribution checked against WCVP (2026-10-24); the text follows the cited sources and awaits specialist review.


---

<!-- https://floreboard.com/en/plants/epipremnum/ -->

L'Illustration horticole · Pl. CCCLXXXI · 1880 · public domain

# Epipremnum Schott

pothos and other epipremnums · Araceae

- **Accepted name:** Epipremnum Schott
- **First published:** Bonplandia (Hannover) 5: 45 (1857)
- **Family:** Araceae
- **Accepted species:** 15 (including 0 natural hybrids)
- **Native range:** 39 TDWG regions, tropical and subtropical Asia to the Pacific
- **Common names:** pothos and other epipremnums, epipremnums
- **Databases:** [POWO](https://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:2779-1) · [IPNI](https://www.ipni.org/n/2779-1) · [WCVP](https://www.checklistbank.org/dataset/2232/taxon/70472) · [Catalogue of Life](https://www.catalogueoflife.org/data/taxon/8VXF4) · [GBIF](https://www.gbif.org/species/2868270)

## Overview

Epipremnum belongs to the arum family, Araceae; Kew gives its native range as tropical and subtropical Asia to the Pacific. The most familiar houseplant, pothos or devil’s ivy, is E. aureum: WCVP records it as native only to the Society Islands in the South Pacific and introduced in about 40 regions worldwide, including south-east China. The RHS describes it as an easy climber with glossy heart-shaped leaves and stems that reach 2 m or more, trailing from a hanging pot or trained up a moss pole.

## Classification and characters

Schott published the genus in 1857. CATE Araceae describes evergreen climbing herbs that produce whip-like shoots; in humid tropical forest they are high-climbing hemiepiphytes on trees and rocks; the leaves are several to many, in two ranks, the blade usually entire or divided into lobes, with parallel side veins.

The plate above, L’Illustration horticole (1880), plate 381, is printed “Pothos aurea, Hort. Linden”: in WCVP, Pothos aureus Linden & André is the basionym of pothos’s current name, Epipremnum aureum. The older name Scindapsus aureus is also a synonym.

| Genus name | Published in |
| --- | --- |
| Anthelia Schott | Ann. Mus. Bot. Lugduno-Batavi 1: 127 (1863) |

## Distribution

WCVP records the genus as native to 39 TDWG botanical regions and introduced in 30 more.

Andaman Is.AssamBangladeshBismarck ArchipelagoBorneoCambodiaCaroline Is.China South-CentralChina SoutheastCook Is.FijiHainanIndiaJawaLaosLesser Sunda Is.MalayaMalukuMarshall Is.MyanmarNansei-shotoNew CaledoniaNew GuineaNicobar Is.Northern TerritoryPhilippinesQueenslandSamoaSanta Cruz Is.Society Is.Solomon Is.SulawesiSumateraTaiwanThailandTongaVanuatuVietnamWallis-Futuna Is.

### Introduced

BermudaBrazil NortheastBrazil SoutheastCameroonChagos ArchipelagoColombiaComorosCosta RicaCubaDominican RepublicEcuadorFloridaGuineaGulf StatesHaitiHawaiiHondurasIvory CoastKenyaLeeward Is.Line Is.Ogasawara-shotoPuerto RicoSeychellesSri LankaSurinameTrinidad-TobagoTuamotuVenezuelan AntillesWindward Is.

## Accepted species

The full list is on https://floreboard.com/en/plants/epipremnum/#species.

## Historic plates

Plates in date order; the printed names are kept as they appear, current names are on the species pages and the topic page.

- [](https://floreboard.com/plants/plates/ih-27-381.jpg)Pothos aurea, Hort. LindenL'Illustration horticole · Pl. CCCLXXXI · 1880,

## Growing indoors and safety

The RHS advises bright, indirect light; it will grow in some shade, though more slowly, and deep shade gives poor growth and less variegation. Avoid overwatering: let the top 2 cm of compost dry between waterings, as excess water, especially in winter, rots the roots, and cold draughts are damaging. The RHS warns that it is toxic and should be kept away from children and pets; the ASPCA lists golden pothos as toxic to dogs and cats, its insoluble calcium oxalates causing oral burning, excessive drooling, vomiting and difficulty swallowing.

## Further reading

- [Reference library](https://floreboard.com/en/library/)

## References

- [WCVP · World Checklist of Vascular Plants (via ChecklistBank dataset 2232)](https://www.checklistbank.org/dataset/2232) · accessed 2026-10-24
- [Kew (POWO data on the ColPlanta site) · Epipremnum, with genus description from CATE Araceae](https://colplanta.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:2779-1/general-information)
- [RHS · Epipremnum](https://www.rhs.org.uk/plants/epipremnum)
- [ASPCA Animal Poison Control · Golden Pothos (Epipremnum aureum)](https://www.aspca.org/pet-care/animal-poison-control/toxic-and-non-toxic-plants/golden-pothos)

Names, places of publication, synonyms and distribution checked against WCVP (2026-10-24); the text follows the cited sources and awaits specialist review.


---

<!-- https://floreboard.com/en/plants/philodendron/ -->

Curtis's Botanical Magazine · 5071 · 1858 · Walter Hood Fitch · public domain

# Philodendron Schott

philodendrons · Araceae

- **Accepted name:** Philodendron Schott
- **First published:** Wiener Z. Kunst 3: 780 (1829)
- **Family:** Araceae
- **Accepted species:** 631 (including 3 natural hybrids)
- **Native range:** 40 TDWG regions, Mexico to tropical America
- **Common names:** philodendrons
- **Databases:** [POWO](https://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:326132-2) · [IPNI](https://www.ipni.org/n/326132-2) · [WCVP](https://www.checklistbank.org/dataset/2232/taxon/151375) · [Catalogue of Life](https://www.catalogueoflife.org/data/taxon/8W2BX) · [GBIF](https://www.gbif.org/species/2861312)

## Overview

Philodendron belongs to the arum family, Araceae; Kew gives its native range as Mexico to tropical America. The RHS describes most philodendrons as coming from the tropical forests of Central and South America, long-lived, easy houseplants with glossy leaves; some form bushy plants and others climb. It is a very large genus: Flora of the Cayman Islands gives “about 275 species”, while WCVP now accepts more than twice that number (see below).

## Classification and characters

Schott published the genus in 1829; WCVP lists Thaumatophyllum, Meconostigma and others as synonyms (see below). CATE Araceae describes evergreen plants from small to gigantic, mostly climbing hemiepiphytes or epiphytes, but also rosette epiphytes and rhizomatous terrestrials; the plants have abundant resin canals; leaf shape varies enormously, with fine parallel-pinnate venation; the inflorescences secrete resin at flowering; and the flowers are unisexual and without a perianth. Kew Bulletin adds that the spathe is erect and persistent, falling only as the berries ripen.

The plate above is P. erubescens from Curtis’s Botanical Magazine, plate 5071 (1858), drawn and lithographed by Walter Hood Fitch.

| Genus name | Published in |
| --- | --- |
| Arosma Raf. | Fl. Tellur. 3: 66 (1837) |
| Baursea (Rchb.) Hoffmanns. ex Kuntze | Deutsche Bot. Monatsschr. 21: 173 (1903) |
| Calostigma Schott | H.W.Schott & S.L.Endlicher, Melet. Bot.: 19 (1832) |
| Elopium Schott | Oesterr. Bot. Z. 15: 34 (1865) |
| Meconostigma Schott | H.W.Schott & S.L.Endlicher, Melet. Bot.: 20 (1832) |
| Sphincterostigma Schott | H.W.Schott & S.L.Endlicher, Melet. Bot.: 20 (1832) |
| Telipodus Raf. | Fl. Tellur. 3: 66 (1837) |
| Thaumatophyllum Schott | Bonplandia (Hannover) 7: 31 (1859) |

## Distribution

WCVP records the genus as native to 40 TDWG botanical regions and introduced in 5 more.

Argentina NortheastBelizeBoliviaBrazil NorthBrazil NortheastBrazil SouthBrazil SoutheastBrazil West-CentralCayman Is.Central American Pacific Is.ColombiaCosta RicaCubaDominican RepublicEcuadorEl SalvadorFrench GuianaGuatemalaGuyanaHaitiHondurasJamaicaLeeward Is.Mexico CentralMexico GulfMexico NortheastMexico NorthwestMexico SoutheastMexico SouthwestNetherlands AntillesNicaraguaPanamáParaguayPeruPuerto RicoSurinameTrinidad-TobagoVenezuelaVenezuelan AntillesWindward Is.

### Introduced

BangladeshCook Is.HawaiiSeychellesSociety Is.

## Accepted species

The full list is on https://floreboard.com/en/plants/philodendron/#species.

## Historic plates

Plates in date order; the printed names are kept as they appear, current names are on the species pages and the topic page.

- [](https://floreboard.com/plants/plates/bot-mag-3314.jpg)Caladium fragrantissimumCurtis's Botanical Magazine · 3314 · 1834, William Jackson Hooker, Joseph Swan
- [](https://floreboard.com/plants/plates/bm-5071.jpg)Philodendron erubescensCurtis's Botanical Magazine · 5071 · 1858, Walter Hood Fitch

## Growing indoors and safety

The RHS advises bright but indirect light, shaded from strong summer sun that can burn the leaves; ordinary room temperatures with a minimum of 15 °C, away from radiators and cold draughts. Do not overwater or leave them standing in water; let the surface of the compost dry before watering, ideally with rainwater or filtered water. They prefer moderate humidity but tolerate dry indoor air. Climbing types are best given support, such as a moss pole they can root into. The RHS warns that philodendrons are poisonous and their sap can irritate skin: wear gloves and keep them out of reach of children and pets.

## Further reading

- [Reference library](https://floreboard.com/en/library/)

## References

- [WCVP · World Checklist of Vascular Plants (via ChecklistBank dataset 2232)](https://www.checklistbank.org/dataset/2232) · accessed 2026-10-24
- [Kew (POWO data on the ColPlanta site) · Philodendron, with genus descriptions from CATE Araceae, Flora of the Cayman Islands and Kew Bulletin](https://colplanta.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:326132-2/general-information)
- [RHS · How to grow philodendrons](https://www.rhs.org.uk/plants/philodendron/growing-guide)

Names, places of publication, synonyms and distribution checked against WCVP (2026-10-24); the text follows the cited sources and awaits specialist review.


---

<!-- https://floreboard.com/en/plants/camellia/ -->

Curtis's Botanical Magazine · 42 · 1788 · public domain

# Camellia L.

camellias · Theaceae

- **Accepted name:** Camellia L.
- **First published:** Sp. Pl.: 698 (1753)
- **Family:** Theaceae
- **Accepted species:** 245 (including 4 natural hybrids)
- **Native range:** 24 TDWG regions, tropical and subtropical Asia
- **Common names:** camellias
- **Databases:** [POWO](https://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:39017-1) · [IPNI](https://www.ipni.org/n/39017-1) · [WCVP](https://www.checklistbank.org/dataset/2232/taxon/2694433) · [Catalogue of Life](https://www.catalogueoflife.org/data/taxon/3GBT) · [GBIF](https://www.gbif.org/species/3189634)

## Overview

Camellia belongs to the tea family, Theaceae; Kew gives its native range as tropical and subtropical Asia. Among the common names Kew’s Economic Botany Collection records for the genus are Assam tea, green tea and black tea: the tea plant belongs here too.

The camellia of florists and gardens is mainly C. japonica, which WCVP records as native to north-central and south-east China, Taiwan, Japan (including the Ryukyus) and Korea.

## Classification and naming

Linnaeus published the genus in Species Plantarum in 1753; generic synonyms are listed below. The plate above is from Curtis’s Botanical Magazine, plate 42 (1788), named in the text “Camellia Japonica. Rose Camellia”.

| Genus name | Published in |
| --- | --- |
| Calpandria Blume | Bijdr. Fl. Ned. Ind.: 178 (1825) |
| Camelliastrum Nakai | J. Jap. Bot. 16: 699 (1940) |
| Dankia Gagnep. | Notul. Syst. (Paris) 8: 131 (1939) |
| Desmitus Raf. | Sylva Tellur.: 139 (1838) |
| Drupifera Raf. | Sylva Tellur.: 140 (1838) |
| Piquetia Hallier f. | Beih. Bot. Centralbl., Abt. 2. 39: 162 (1921) |
| Salceda Blanco | Fl. Filip., ed. 2.: 374 (1845) |
| Sasanqua Nees | P.F.von Siebold, Nippon 4: 13 (1834) |
| Stereocarpus Hallier f. | Beih. Bot. Centralbl., Abt. 2. 39: 162 (1921) |
| Thea L. | Sp. Pl.: 515 (1753) |
| Theaphylla Raf. | Med. Fl. 2: 267 (1830) |
| Theopsis (Cohen-Stuart) Nakai | J. Jap. Bot. 16: 704 (1940) |
| Tsia Adans. | Fam. Pl. 2: 450 (1763) |
| Yunnanea Hu | Acta Phytotax. Sin. 5: 282 (1956) |

## Distribution

WCVP records the genus as native to 24 TDWG botanical regions and introduced in 14 more.

AssamBangladeshBorneoCambodiaChina North-CentralChina South-CentralChina SoutheastEast HimalayaHainanJapanKoreaLaosLesser Sunda Is.MyanmarNansei-shotoNepalPhilippinesSolomon Is.Sri LankaSulawesiTaiwanThailandTibetVietnam

### Introduced

Andaman Is.Argentina NortheastArkansasBoliviaEthiopiaGuineaGulf of Guinea Is.IndiaJuan Fernández Is.MauritiusRéunionSeychellesTrinidad-TobagoTürkiye

## Accepted species

The full list is on https://floreboard.com/en/plants/camellia/#species.

## Historic plates

Plates in date order; the printed names are kept as they appear, current names are on the species pages and the topic page.

- [](https://floreboard.com/plants/plates/bm-42.jpg)Camellia japonicaCurtis's Botanical Magazine · 42 · 1788,
- [](https://floreboard.com/plants/plates/bot-mag-998.jpg)Thea chinensisCurtis's Botanical Magazine · 998 · 1807, Sydenham Edwards
- [](https://floreboard.com/plants/plates/bot-register-22.jpg)Camellia japonicaEdwards's Botanical Register · 22 · 1815, Sydenham Edwards, Smith
- [](https://floreboard.com/plants/plates/bot-mag-2784.jpg)Camellia reticulataCurtis's Botanical Magazine · 2784 · 1827, William Jackson Hooker, Joseph Swan

## Growing and safety

The RHS describes camellias as easy, glossy evergreen shrubs that thrive in acid soil (below pH 7), the same conditions as rhododendrons. Flowering depends on the group: C. sasanqua cultivars flower in autumn and winter, while C. japonica and C. × williamsii cultivars flower in late winter and early spring. Keep plants well watered through summer, when next year’s flower buds form; summer drought and excessive or late-summer feeding cause bud drop, so do not feed after the end of July.

The ASPCA lists C. japonica as non-toxic to dogs, cats and horses.

## Further reading

- [Flower guide](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/camellia/)
- [Reference library](https://floreboard.com/en/library/)

## References

- [WCVP · World Checklist of Vascular Plants (via ChecklistBank dataset 2232)](https://www.checklistbank.org/dataset/2232) · accessed 2026-10-24
- [Kew (POWO data on the ColPlanta site) · Camellia native range](https://colplanta.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:39017-1/general-information)
- [RHS · How to grow camellias](https://www.rhs.org.uk/plants/camellia/growing-guide)
- [ASPCA Animal Poison Control · Camellia (Camellia japonica)](https://www.aspca.org/pet-care/animal-poison-control/toxic-and-non-toxic-plants/camellia)

Names, places of publication, synonyms and distribution checked against WCVP (2026-10-24); the text follows the cited sources and awaits specialist review.


---

<!-- https://floreboard.com/en/plants/rhododendron/ -->

The Rhododendrons of Sikkim-Himalaya · Tab. I · 1849 · Joseph Dalton Hooker, Walter Hood Fitch · public domain

# Rhododendron L.

rhododendrons and azaleas · Ericaceae

- **Accepted name:** Rhododendron L.
- **First published:** Sp. Pl.: 392 (1753)
- **Family:** Ericaceae
- **Accepted species:** 1234 (including 129 natural hybrids)
- **Native range:** 142 TDWG regions, the temperate Northern Hemisphere to the mountains of tropical Asia and north-eastern Australia
- **Common names:** rhododendrons and azaleas, Azalea
- **Databases:** [POWO](https://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:327085-2) · [IPNI](https://www.ipni.org/n/327085-2) · [WCVP](https://www.checklistbank.org/dataset/2232/taxon/2419078) · [Catalogue of Life](https://www.catalogueoflife.org/data/taxon/63QC9) · [GBIF](https://www.gbif.org/species/2883026)

## Overview

Rhododendron belongs to the heath family, Ericaceae; Kew gives its native range as the temperate Northern Hemisphere to the mountains of tropical Asia and north-eastern Australia. Trees of New Guinea calls it a very large genus of at least 850 species across Asia and South-East Asia, especially Malesia (section Vireya); New Guinea alone has at least 170, most endemic, from lowland forest to subalpine elevations of 4,000 m, and most diverse in the mountains. The number WCVP accepts today, including many natural hybrids, is in the table below.

The RHS notes that gardeners split them into rhododendrons, typically larger evergreens, and azaleas, smaller and evergreen or deciduous; both flower from spring to early summer.

## Classification and characters

Linnaeus published the genus in Species Plantarum in 1753. Trees of New Guinea describes shrubs or small trees (to 6 m in New Guinea), terrestrial or epiphytic; leaves stalked, spirally arranged and often in pseudo-whorls, leathery; covered in scales and/or branched hairs, densest on young growth and leaf undersides; flowers usually five-parted, with a persistent cup- or disc-shaped calyx, a superior ovary and an often bell-shaped to tubular corolla; and a capsule longer than wide, opening from the top around a persistent central column.

The plate above is R. dalhousieae, growing as an epiphyte on a tree trunk, from tab. I of J. D. Hooker’s Rhododendrons of Sikkim-Himalaya (1849); WCVP cites tab. 2 of the same book as the place the species was published.

| Genus name | Published in |
| --- | --- |
| × Azaleodendron Rodigas | Gard. Chron., ser. 3, 13: 665 (1893) |
| × Ledodendron F.de Vos | Quart. Bull. Amer. Rhododendron Soc. 16: 272 (1962) |
| × Rhodazalea Anon. | J. Soc. Natl. Hort. France, sér. 4, 9: 328 (1908) |
| Anthodendron Rchb. | J.C.Mössler, Handb. Gewächsk., ed. 2. 1: 244 (1827) |
| Azaleastrum Rydb. | Mem. New York Bot. Gard. 1: 297 (1900) |
| Biltia Small | Fl. S.E. U.S.: 884 (1903) |
| Candollea Baumg. | Cat. Hort. Bollw.: [s.p.] (1810) |
| Chamaecistus Regel | Gartenflora 23: 60 (1874) |
| Chamaerhododendron Bubani | Fl. Pyren. 2: 5, 18 (1899) |
| Chamaerhododendros Daubenton | D.Diderot & J.L.R.d’Alembert, Encycl. Dict. Raisonné Sci. 3: 42 (1753) |
| Diplarche Hook.f. & Thomson | Hooker's J. Bot. Kew Gard. Misc. 6: 382 (1854) |
| Dulia Adans. | Fam. Pl. 2: 165 (1763) |
| Haustrum Noronha | Verh. Batav. Genootsch. Kunsten 5(4): 2 (1790) |
| Hochenwartia Crantz | Inst. Rei Herb. 2: 468 (1766) |
| Hymenanthes Blume | Bijdr. Fl. Ned. Ind.: 882 (1826) |
| Iposues Raf. | Autik. Bot.: 186 (1840) |
| Ledum Ruppius ex L. | Sp. Pl.: 391 (1753) |
| Loiseleria Rchb. | Fl. Germ. Excurs. 1: 416 (1831) |
| Menziesia Sm. | Pl. Icon. Ined.: t. 56 (1791) |
| Osmothamnus DC. | Prodr. 7: 715 (1839) |
| Plinthochroma Dulac | Fl. Hautes-Pyrénées: 419 (1867) |
| Rhodora L. | Sp. Pl., ed. 2.: 561 (1762) |
| Rhodothamnus Lindl. & Paxton | Paxton's Fl. Gard. 1: t. 22 (1850) |
| Stemotis Raf. | Sylva Tellur.: 152 (1838) |
| Theis Salisb. ex DC. | Prodr. 7: 715 (1839) |
| Therorhodion Small | N.L.Britton & al. (eds.), N. Amer. Fl. 29: 45 (1914) |
| Tsusiophyllum Maxim. | Mém. Acad. Imp. Sci. Saint Pétersbourg, Sér. 7. 16(9): 12 (1870) |
| Vireya Blume | Bijdr. Fl. Ned. Ind.: 854 (1826) |
| Waldemaria Klotzsch | Bot. Ergebn. Reise Waldemar: 99 (1862) |

## Distribution

WCVP records the genus as native to 142 TDWG botanical regions and introduced in 7 more.

Native regions (142)

AfghanistanAlabamaAlaskaAlbertaAleutian Is.AltayAmurArkansasAssamAustriaBaltic StatesBangladeshBelarusBismarck ArchipelagoBorneoBritish ColumbiaBulgariaBuryatiyaCaliforniaCambodiaCentral European RussiaChina North-CentralChina South-CentralChina SoutheastChitaColoradoConnecticutCzechia-SlovakiaDelawareEast Aegean Is.East European RussiaEast HimalayaFinlandFloridaFranceGeorgiaGermanyGreenlandHainanIdahoIllinoisIndiaInner MongoliaIrkutskItalyJapanJawaKamchatkaKazakhstanKentuckyKhabarovskKoreaKrasnoyarskKuril Is.LabradorLaosLebanon-SyriaLesser Sunda Is.LouisianaMagadanMaineMalayaMalukuManchuriaManitobaMarylandMassachusettsMichiganMinnesotaMississippiMissouriMongoliaMontanaMyanmarNansei-shotoNepalNevadaNew BrunswickNew GuineaNew HampshireNew JerseyNew MexicoNew YorkNewfoundlandNorth CarolinaNorth CaucasusNorth European RussiaNorthwest European RussiaNorthwest TerritoriesNorwayNova ScotiaNunavutNW. Balkan Pen.Ogasawara-shotoOhioOklahomaOntarioOregonPakistanPennsylvaniaPhilippinesPolandPortugalPrimoryePrince Edward I.QinghaiQuébecQueenslandRhode I.RomaniaSakhalinSaskatchewanSolomon Is.South CarolinaSpainSri LankaSulawesiSumateraSwedenSwitzerlandTaiwanTennesseeTexasThailandTibetTranscaucasusTürkiyeTürkiye-in-EuropeTuvaUkraineUtahVermontVietnamVirginiaWashingtonWest HimalayaWest SiberiaWest VirginiaWisconsinWyomingYakutiyaYukon

### Introduced

AzoresBelgiumGreat BritainGulf of Guinea Is.IrelandMadeiraNetherlands

## Accepted species

The full list is on https://floreboard.com/en/plants/rhododendron/#species.

## Historic plates

Plates in date order; the printed names are kept as they appear, current names are on the species pages and the topic page.

- [](https://floreboard.com/plants/plates/rhododendrons-sikkim-1.jpg)Rhododendron Dalhousiæ, Hook. fil.The Rhododendrons of Sikkim-Himalaya · Tab. I · 1849, Joseph Dalton Hooker, Walter Hood Fitch
- [](https://floreboard.com/plants/plates/illustration-horticole-020.jpg)Azalea indica Vittata punctataL'Illustration horticole · 020 · 1854, J. Vandamme, C. Severeyns
- [](https://floreboard.com/plants/plates/illustration-horticole-038.jpg)Azalea indica alba illustrataL'Illustration horticole · 038 · 1854, C. Severeyns

## Growing and safety

The RHS recommends soil of pH 5.0–6.0 rich in organic matter, watered with rainwater; tap water is acceptable for a month or two in summer if rainwater runs out. Flower buds start forming in late summer.

The ASPCA lists Rhododendron (under azalea) as toxic to dogs, cats and horses: the toxic principle is grayanotoxin, and signs include vomiting (not in horses), diarrhoea, weakness and cardiac failure.

## Further reading

- [Flower guide](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/azalea/)
- [Reference library](https://floreboard.com/en/library/)

## References

- [WCVP · World Checklist of Vascular Plants (via ChecklistBank dataset 2232)](https://www.checklistbank.org/dataset/2232) · accessed 2026-10-24
- [Kew (POWO data on the ColPlanta site) · Rhododendron, with genus description from Trees of New Guinea](https://colplanta.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:327085-2/general-information)
- [RHS · How to grow rhododendrons](https://www.rhs.org.uk/plants/rhododendron/growing-guide)
- [ASPCA Animal Poison Control · Azalea (Rhododendron spp.)](https://www.aspca.org/pet-care/animal-poison-control/toxic-and-non-toxic-plants/azalea)

Names, places of publication, synonyms and distribution checked against WCVP (2026-10-24); the text follows the cited sources and awaits specialist review.


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<!-- https://floreboard.com/en/plants/chimonanthus/ -->

Curtis's Botanical Magazine · 466 · 1800 · Sydenham Edwards · public domain

# Chimonanthus Lindl.

wintersweets · Calycanthaceae

- **Accepted name:** Chimonanthus Lindl.
- **First published:** Bot. Reg. 5: t. 404 (1819)
- **Family:** Calycanthaceae
- **Accepted species:** 6 (including 0 natural hybrids)
- **Native range:** 3 TDWG regions, China (north-central, south-central and south-east)
- **Common names:** wintersweets
- **Databases:** [POWO](https://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:331487-2) · [IPNI](https://www.ipni.org/n/331487-2) · [WCVP](https://www.checklistbank.org/dataset/2232/taxon/382890) · [Catalogue of Life](https://www.catalogueoflife.org/data/taxon/3N6Q) · [GBIF](https://www.gbif.org/species/7275850)

## Overview

Chimonanthus belongs to the family Calycanthaceae and is a small genus: WCVP accepts only a handful of species, all native to north-central, south-central and south-east China. The wintersweet branches florists sell in winter are C. praecox; despite the similar Chinese name (lamei), it is unrelated to the Japanese apricot, Prunus mume (meihua).

## Classification and naming

Lindley published the genus in the Botanical Register in 1819 (WCVP). Linnaeus first placed wintersweet in Calycanthus, as Calycanthus praecox; Link moved it to Chimonanthus in 1822, giving the current name Chimonanthus praecox (L.) Link (WCVP). The plate above, Curtis’s Botanical Magazine plate 466 (1800), still names it in the text “Calycanthus Praecox. Japan All-spice”.

| Genus name | Published in |
| --- | --- |
| Meratia Loisel. | Herb. Gén. Amat. 3: t. 173 (1819 publ. 1818) |

## Distribution

WCVP records the genus as native to 3 TDWG botanical regions.

China North-CentralChina South-CentralChina Southeast

## Accepted species

The full list is on https://floreboard.com/en/plants/chimonanthus/#species.

## Historic plates

Plates in date order; the printed names are kept as they appear, current names are on the species pages and the topic page.

- [](https://floreboard.com/plants/plates/bm-466.jpg)Calycanthus praecoxCurtis's Botanical Magazine · 466 · 1800, Sydenham Edwards

## Growing

The RHS describes the cultivar ‘Luteus’ as having pale yellow flowers, pure in colour and not marked with red, with a sweet scent. It is perfectly hardy in the open garden (RHS hardiness rating H5) but needs the extra summer warmth of a fence or wall to ripen its shoots and develop the buds for its winter flowers. Plant it near a path or door to enjoy the scent, prune after flowering if necessary; it grows to about 2.5 m.

## Further reading

- [Flower guide](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/wintersweet/)
- [Reference library](https://floreboard.com/en/library/)

## References

- [WCVP · World Checklist of Vascular Plants (via ChecklistBank dataset 2232)](https://www.checklistbank.org/dataset/2232) · accessed 2026-10-24
- [RHS · 10 award-winning winter wall plants](https://www.rhs.org.uk/garden-inspiration/seasonal/10-winter-wall-shrubs-climbers)

Names, places of publication, synonyms and distribution checked against WCVP (2026-10-24); the text follows the cited sources and awaits specialist review.


---

<!-- https://floreboard.com/en/plants/salix/ -->

Traité des arbres et arbustes que l'on cultive en France en pleine terre (nouvelle édition) · No 27 · 1800–1819 · Pierre-Joseph Redouté · public domain

# Salix L.

willows · Salicaceae

- **Accepted name:** Salix L.
- **First published:** Sp. Pl.: 1015 (1753)
- **Family:** Salicaceae
- **Accepted species:** 698 (including 224 natural hybrids)
- **Native range:** 237 TDWG regions, subarctic and temperate regions to tropical mountains
- **Common names:** willows
- **Databases:** [POWO](https://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:325916-2) · [IPNI](https://www.ipni.org/n/325916-2) · [WCVP](https://www.checklistbank.org/dataset/2232/taxon/2918656) · [Catalogue of Life](https://www.catalogueoflife.org/data/taxon/7NF47) · [GBIF](https://www.gbif.org/species/3039576)

## Overview

Salix belongs to the willow family, Salicaceae; Kew gives its native range as subarctic and temperate regions to tropical mountains. A large share of the species WCVP accepts are natural hybrids (names with ×), a sign of how freely willows cross.

In WCVP, weeping willow, S. babylonica, is native to north-central and south-east China, Manchuria, Inner Mongolia, Qinghai and Korea and introduced in more than 50 regions; S. gracilistyla, the pussy willow sold as cut branches, is native to Japan, Korea, north-east China and the Russian Far East.

## Classification and characters

Linnaeus published the genus in Species Plantarum in 1753. Flora of Tropical East Africa describes trees or shrubs, rarely almost herbaceous, with buds covered by a single outer scale, flowers often appearing before the leaves, and a two-valved capsule; Flora Zambesiaca adds that male flowers have several stamens and female flowers a style divided into two stigmas. The plate above is Redouté’s weeping willow for the Nouveau Duhamel, inscribed in French “Saule pleureur”.

| Genus name | Published in |
| --- | --- |
| × Toisochosenia Kimura | Sci. Rep. Tohoku Imp. Univ., Ser. 4, Biol. 11: 247 (1936) |
| Amerina Raf. | Alsogr. Amer.: 15 (1838) |
| Amerix Raf. | Amer. Monthly Mag. & Crit. Rev. 1: 439 (1817) |
| Argorips Raf. | Alsogr. Amer.: 13 (1838) |
| Biggina Raf. | Alsogr. Amer.: 4 (1838) |
| Capraea Opiz | Seznam: 25 (1852) |
| Chalebus Raf. | Amer. Monthly Mag. & Crit. Rev. 1: 439 (1817) |
| Chamitea A.Kern. | Verh. K. K. Zool.-Bot. Ges. Wien 10: 275 (1860) |
| Chosenia Nakai | Bot. Mag. (Tokyo) 34: 67 (1920) |
| Diamarips Raf. | Alsogr. Amer.: 15 (1838) |
| Diplima Raf. | Alsogr. Amer.: 13 (1838) |
| Diplopia Raf. | Amer. Monthly Mag. & Crit. Rev. 1: 439 (1817) |
| Diplusion Raf. | Alsogr. Amer.: 15 (1838) |
| Disynia Raf. | Amer. Monthly Mag. & Crit. Rev. 1: 439 (1817) |
| Gruenera Opiz | Seznam: 48 (1852) |
| Knafia Opiz | Seznam: 56 (1852) |
| Lusekia Opiz | Seznam: 61 (1852) |
| Melanix Raf. | Amer. Monthly Mag. & Crit. Rev. 1: 439 (1817) |
| Nectolis Raf. | Alsogr. Amer.: 15 (1838) |
| Nectopix Raf. | Alsogr. Amer.: 14 (1838) |
| Nectusion Raf. | Alsogr. Amer.: 14 (1838) |
| Nestylix Raf. | Alsogr. Amer.: 15 (1838) |
| Oisodix Raf. | Alsogr. Amer.: 13 (1838) |
| Opodix Raf. | Amer. Monthly Mag. & Crit. Rev. 1: 439 (1817) |
| Psatherips Raf. | Alsogr. Amer.: 15 (1838) |
| Ripselaxis Raf. | Alsogr. Amer.: 14 (1838) |
| Ripsoctis Raf. | Alsogr. Amer.: 15 (1838) |
| Sokolofia Raf. | Alsogr. Amer.: 14 (1838) |
| Telesmia Raf. | Alsogr. Amer.: 15 (1838) |
| Toisusu Kimura | Bot. Mag. (Tokyo) 42: 288 (1928) |
| Urnectis Raf. | Alsogr. Amer.: 14 (1838) |
| Usionis Raf. | Alsogr. Amer.: 14 (1838) |
| Vetrix Raf. | Amer. Monthly Mag. & Crit. Rev. 1: 439 (1817) |
| Vimen Raf. | Amer. Monthly Mag. & Crit. Rev. 1: 439 (1817) |

## Distribution

WCVP records the genus as native to 237 TDWG botanical regions and introduced in 22 more.

Native regions (237)

AfghanistanAlabamaAlaskaAlbaniaAlbertaAleutian Is.AlgeriaAltayAmurAndaman Is.AngolaArgentina NortheastArgentina NorthwestArgentina SouthArizonaArkansasAssamAustriaBaltic StatesBangladeshBelarusBelgiumBelizeBoliviaBorneoBotswanaBrazil NorthBrazil SouthBrazil SoutheastBritish ColumbiaBulgariaBurkinaBuryatiyaCaliforniaCambodiaCameroonCanary Is.Cape ProvincesCentral African RepublicCentral European RussiaChadChile CentralChile NorthChile SouthChina North-CentralChina South-CentralChina SoutheastChitaColombiaColoradoConnecticutCorseCosta RicaCyprusCzechia-SlovakiaDelawareDenmarkDistrict of ColumbiaDR CongoEast Aegean Is.East European RussiaEast HimalayaEcuadorEgyptEl SalvadorEritreaEswatiniEthiopiaFinlandFloridaFøroyarFranceFree StateGambiaGeorgiaGermanyGreat BritainGreeceGreenlandGuatemalaGuineaHainanHondurasHungaryIcelandIdahoIllinoisIndiaIndianaInner MongoliaIowaIranIraqIrelandIrkutskItalyJapanJawaKamchatkaKansasKazakhstanKentuckyKenyaKhabarovskKirgizstanKoreaKrasnoyarskKritiKrymKuril Is.KwaZulu-NatalLabradorLaosLebanon-SyriaLesothoLesser Sunda Is.LibyaLouisianaMadeiraMagadanMaineMalawiMalayaMaliManchuriaManitobaMarylandMassachusettsMauritaniaMexico CentralMexico GulfMexico NortheastMexico NorthwestMexico SoutheastMexico SouthwestMichiganMinnesotaMississippiMissouriMongoliaMontanaMoroccoMozambiqueMyanmarNamibiaNebraskaNepalNetherlandsNevadaNew BrunswickNew HampshireNew JerseyNew MexicoNew YorkNewfoundlandNicaraguaNigerNorth CarolinaNorth CaucasusNorth DakotaNorth European RussiaNorthern ProvincesNorthwest European RussiaNorthwest TerritoriesNorwayNova ScotiaNunavutNW. Balkan Pen.OhioOklahomaOmanOntarioOregonPakistanPalestinePanamáParaguayPennsylvaniaPeruPhilippinesPolandPortugalPrimoryePrince Edward I.QinghaiQuébecRhode I.RomaniaSakhalinSardegnaSaskatchewanSaudi ArabiaSenegalSiciliaSinaiSouth CarolinaSouth DakotaSouth European RussiaSpainSudan-South SudanSvalbardSwedenSwitzerlandTadzhikistanTaiwanTanzaniaTennesseeTexasThailandTibetTranscaucasusTunisiaTürkiyeTürkiye-in-EuropeTurkmenistanTuvaUgandaUkraineUruguayUtahUzbekistanVenezuelaVermontVietnamVirginiaWashingtonWest HimalayaWest SiberiaWest VirginiaWisconsinWyomingXinjiangYakutiyaYemenYukonZambiaZimbabwe

### Introduced

AzoresBalearesBermudaCongoCubaDominican RepublicFijiHaitiMauritiusNew South WalesNew Zealand NorthNew Zealand SouthNorthern TerritoryPuerto RicoQueenslandSouth AustraliaTasmaniaTrinidad-TobagoTristan da CunhaTubuai Is.VictoriaWestern Australia

## Accepted species

The full list is on https://floreboard.com/en/plants/salix/#species.

## Historic plates

Plates in date order; the printed names are kept as they appear, current names are on the species pages and the topic page.

- [](https://floreboard.com/plants/plates/nouveau-duhamel-3-27.jpg)Salix BabylonicaTraité des arbres et arbustes que l'on cultive en France en pleine terre (nouvelle édition) · No 27 · 1800–1819, Pierre-Joseph Redouté

## Growing

The RHS describes willows’ graceful weeping shapes, colourful winter stems and early spring catkins, which are a magnet for bees, the catkins especially colourful on male trees. They can be pollarded annually to control size; coppice or pollard in April, just before new growth begins. New plants are easy from hardwood cuttings. Willows have an extensive, vigorous, thirsty root system, so keep them away from buildings.

## Further reading

- [Flower guide](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/willow/)
- [Flower guide](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/pussywillow/)
- [Reference library](https://floreboard.com/en/library/)

## References

- [WCVP · World Checklist of Vascular Plants (via ChecklistBank dataset 2232)](https://www.checklistbank.org/dataset/2232) · accessed 2026-10-24
- [Kew (POWO data on the ColPlanta site) · Salix, with genus descriptions from Flora of Tropical East Africa and Flora Zambesiaca](https://colplanta.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:325916-2/general-information)
- [RHS · How to grow willow trees](https://www.rhs.org.uk/plants/willow/trees/growing-guide)

Names, places of publication, synonyms and distribution checked against WCVP (2026-10-24); the text follows the cited sources and awaits specialist review.


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<!-- https://floreboard.com/en/plants/acacia/ -->

Edwards's Botanical Register · 371 · 1819 · Sydenham Edwards, Smith · public domain

# Acacia Mill.

wattles · Fabaceae

- **Accepted name:** Acacia Mill.
- **First published:** Gard. Dict. Abr., ed. 4.: [s.p.] (1754)
- **Family:** Fabaceae
- **Accepted species:** 1092 (including 8 natural hybrids)
- **Native range:** 27 TDWG regions, chiefly Australia, also South-East Asia and the Pacific
- **Common names:** wattles
- **Databases:** [POWO](https://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:325783-2) · [IPNI](https://www.ipni.org/n/325783-2) · [WCVP](https://www.checklistbank.org/dataset/2232/taxon/2611079) · [Catalogue of Life](https://www.catalogueoflife.org/data/taxon/LV7) · [GBIF](https://www.gbif.org/species/2978223)

## Overview

Acacia belongs to the legume family, Fabaceae. Legumes of the World notes its many uses for timber, gums (several species are a major source of gum arabic), fodder and bee forage, with some grown as ornamentals; the golden cut flower sold as “florists’ mimosa” is A. dealbata.

WCVP records A. dealbata as native to New South Wales, Victoria and Tasmania in south-eastern Australia and introduced in nearly 60 regions. The RHS describes it as an evergreen shrub or tree to 10 m or more with finely divided grey-green leaves, known as mimosa or silver wattle.

## Classification: a divided genus

Legumes of the World gives about 1,450 species and notes that the genus as currently circumscribed is not monophyletic. Flora of Somalia observes that the genus has been divided: under the new treatment all Somali species fall into Senegalia or Vachellia, leaving only the introduced Australian A. saligna in Acacia. The number WCVP accepts today is in the table below.

Flora of Tropical East Africa describes bipinnate leaves, often modified to phyllodes in introduced species; Trees of New Guinea explains that phyllodes are expanded leaf stalks that look like simple leaves; flowers are borne in spikes, spike-like racemes or round heads (Flora Zambesiaca). The plate above, Botanical Register plate 371 (1819), is named in the text Acacia decurrens β mollis, which WCVP places under A. dealbata.

| Genus name | Published in |
| --- | --- |
| Adianthum Burm.f. | Fl. Indica: 235 (1768) |
| Chithonanthus Lehm. | Pl. Preiss. 2: 368 (1848) |
| Cuparilla Raf. | Sylva Tellur.: 120 (1838) |
| Drepaphyla Raf. | Sylva Tellur.: 120 (1838) |
| Hecatandra Raf. | Sylva Tellur.: 120 (1838) |
| Phyllodoce Link | Handbuch 2: 132 (1831) |
| Racosperma Mart. | Index Seminum (M, Monacensis) 1835: 4 (1835) |
| Tetracheilos Lehm. | Pl. Preiss. 2: 368 (1848) |
| Zigmaloba Raf. | Sylva Tellur.: 120 (1838) |

## Distribution

WCVP records the genus as native to 27 TDWG botanical regions and introduced in 130 more.

BorneoFijiHawaiiJawaLesser Sunda Is.MadagascarMalayaMalukuMauritiusNew CaledoniaNew GuineaNew South WalesNorthern TerritoryPhilippinesQueenslandRéunionSamoaSolomon Is.South AustraliaSumateraTaiwanTasmaniaTongaVanuatuVictoriaWallis-Futuna Is.Western Australia

### Introduced

Introduced regions (130)

AlbaniaAlgeriaAmsterdam-St.Paul Is.Andaman Is.AngolaArgentina NortheastArizonaAscensionAssamAzoresBahamasBalearesBangladeshBeninBoliviaBrazil NortheastBrazil SouthBrazil SoutheastBurkinaCaliforniaCambodiaCameroonCanary Is.Cape ProvincesCape VerdeCaroline Is.Chile CentralChile NorthChile SouthChina South-CentralChina SoutheastColombiaComorosCook Is.CorseCosta RicaCubaCyprusDesventurados Is.Dominican RepublicDR CongoEast Aegean Is.East HimalayaEaster Is.EcuadorEl SalvadorEritreaEswatiniEthiopiaFloridaFranceFree StateFrench GuianaGreat BritainGreeceGuatemalaGuineaHainanHaitiHondurasIndiaIraqItalyJamaicaJuan Fernández Is.KenyaKritiKwaZulu-NatalLaosLebanon-SyriaLeeward Is.LesothoLibyaMadeiraMalawiMarianasMexico SouthwestMoroccoMozambiqueMyanmarNamibiaNansei-shotoNepalNevadaNew Zealand NorthNew Zealand SouthNicaraguaNicobar Is.NigeriaNorfolk Is.North CaucasusNorthern ProvincesNW. Balkan Pen.Ogasawara-shotoOmanOregonPakistanPalestinePanamáPeruPortugalPuerto RicoRomaniaRwandaSardegnaSaudi ArabiaSeychellesSiciliaSomaliaSpainSri LankaSt.HelenaSudan-South SudanTanzaniaTokelau-ManihikiTranscaucasusTrinidad-TobagoTuamotuTunisiaTürkiyeUgandaUkraineUruguayVenezuelaVietnamWest HimalayaWindward Is.YemenZambiaZimbabwe

## Accepted species

The full list is on https://floreboard.com/en/plants/acacia/#species.

## Historic plates

Plates in date order; the printed names are kept as they appear, current names are on the species pages and the topic page.

- [](https://floreboard.com/plants/plates/bot-mag-9-302.jpg)Mimosa myrtifoliaCurtis's Botanical Magazine · 302 · 1795,
- [](https://floreboard.com/plants/plates/fragmenta-botanica-44.jpg)Mimosa simplicifoliaFragmenta Botanica, figuris coloratis illustrata · 44 · 1800,
- [](https://floreboard.com/plants/plates/bot-reg-371.jpg)Acacia decurrens β mollisEdwards's Botanical Register · 371 · 1819, Sydenham Edwards, Smith
- [](https://floreboard.com/plants/plates/bot-mag-3502.jpg)Acacia prominensCurtis's Botanical Magazine · 3502 · 1836, Joseph Swan
- [](https://floreboard.com/plants/plates/bot-mag-73-4306.jpg)Acacia celastrifoliaCurtis's Botanical Magazine · 4306 · 1847, Walter Hood Fitch

## Growing

The RHS rates A. dealbata H3, hardy only in coastal and relatively mild parts of the UK (about −5 to 1 °C); grow it in neutral to acid, well-drained soil in a sheltered, sunny spot. It resents hard pruning.

## Further reading

- [Flower guide](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/acacia/)
- [Reference library](https://floreboard.com/en/library/)

## References

- [WCVP · World Checklist of Vascular Plants (via ChecklistBank dataset 2232)](https://www.checklistbank.org/dataset/2232) · accessed 2026-10-24
- [Kew (POWO data on the ColPlanta site) · Acacia, with notes from Legumes of the World Online, Flora of Somalia, Flora of Tropical East Africa and Trees of New Guinea](https://colplanta.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:325783-2/general-information)
- [RHS · Acacia dealbata (mimosa, silver wattle)](https://www.rhs.org.uk/plants/24107/acacia-dealbata/details)

Names, places of publication, synonyms and distribution checked against WCVP (2026-10-24); the text follows the cited sources and awaits specialist review.


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<!-- https://floreboard.com/en/plants/eucalyptus/ -->

Relation du voyage à la recherche de La Pérouse (Atlas) · No 13 · 1800 · Pierre-Joseph Redouté · public domain

# Eucalyptus L'Hér.

eucalypts · Myrtaceae

- **Accepted name:** Eucalyptus L'Hér.
- **First published:** Sert. Angl.: 18 (1789)
- **Family:** Myrtaceae
- **Accepted species:** 816 (including 100 natural hybrids)
- **Native range:** 13 TDWG regions, the Philippines to Australia, overwhelmingly Australian
- **Common names:** eucalypts
- **Databases:** [POWO](https://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:27534-1) · [IPNI](https://www.ipni.org/n/27534-1) · [WCVP](https://www.checklistbank.org/dataset/2232/taxon/72366) · [Catalogue of Life](https://www.catalogueoflife.org/data/taxon/4F2P) · [GBIF](https://www.gbif.org/species/7493935)

## Overview

Eucalyptus belongs to the myrtle family, Myrtaceae; Kew gives its native range as the Philippines to Australia. Flora of Somalia gives more than 800 species and Trees of New Guinea about 880, overwhelmingly Australian; many are planted in warmer parts of the world for timber, firewood, oil or ornament. The RHS describes evergreen trees and shrubs with usually blue-green or silvery, menthol-scented leaves.

Florists’ eucalyptus comes from several species: WCVP records cider gum, E. gunnii, as native to Tasmania, and silver dollar, E. cinerea, to New South Wales and Victoria.

## Classification and characters

L’Héritier published the genus in 1789 (WCVP). Flora Zambesiaca describes juvenile leaves as mostly horizontal, opposite, heart-shaped and stalkless, and adult leaves as hard, mostly hanging vertically, alike on both faces, alternate and stalked. The perianth forms an operculum that falls off whole as the stamens expand, and the capsule is usually woody (Flora of Tropical East Africa). The round leaves florists use are mostly juvenile foliage.

The plate above is E. globulus, drawn by Redouté, from plate 13 of the atlas to Labillardière’s account of the voyage in search of La Pérouse: WCVP cites volume 1 of that work (1800) as where the species was published and records it as native to Tasmania and Victoria.

| Genus name | Published in |
| --- | --- |
| Aromadendron Andrews ex Steud. | Nomencl. Bot., ed. 2. 1: 134 (1840) |
| Aromadendrum W.Anderson ex R.Br. | Prodr. Fl. Nov. Holland.: 553 (1810) |
| Blakella (L.D.Pryor & L.A.S.Johnson ex Brooker) Crisp & L.G.Cook | J. Syst. Evol. 62: 957 (2024) |
| Eucalypton St.-Lag. | Ann. Soc. Bot. Lyon 7: 125 (1880) |
| Eudesmia F.L.Bauer | Icon. Eudesmia tetragona: t. s.n. (1814) |
| Symphyomyrtus Schauer | J.G.C.Lehmann, Pl. Preiss. 1: 126 (1844) |

## Distribution

WCVP records the genus as native to 13 TDWG botanical regions and introduced in 93 more.

Bismarck ArchipelagoLesser Sunda Is.MalukuNew GuineaNew South WalesNorthern TerritoryPhilippinesQueenslandSouth AustraliaSulawesiTasmaniaVictoriaWestern Australia

### Introduced

Introduced regions (93)

AlbaniaAlgeriaAndaman Is.AngolaArgentina NortheastArgentina NorthwestArizonaAscensionAssamAzoresBalearesBangladeshBeninBoliviaCaliforniaCambodiaCanary Is.Cape ProvincesCaroline Is.ChadChina South-CentralChina SoutheastColombiaComorosCorseCosta RicaCubaDominican RepublicEast Aegean Is.Easter Is.EcuadorEl SalvadorEritreaEthiopiaFloridaFranceFree StateGambiaGreat BritainGreeceGuatemalaGuineaGulf StatesHainanHawaiiHondurasIndiaIrelandItalyJuan Fernández Is.KenyaLebanon-SyriaLeeward Is.LesothoLibyaMadeiraMalawiMexico SoutheastMexico SouthwestMoroccoMozambiqueMyanmarNew CaledoniaNew Zealand NorthNew Zealand SouthNicaraguaNicobar Is.Norfolk Is.PakistanPalestinePanamáParaguayPeruPortugalPuerto RicoRwandaSardegnaSenegalSiciliaSociety Is.SpainSt.HelenaTaiwanTanzaniaThailandTranscaucasusTrinidad-TobagoTunisiaTürkiyeUgandaWindward Is.ZambiaZimbabwe

## Accepted species

The full list is on https://floreboard.com/en/plants/eucalyptus/#species.

## Historic plates

Plates in date order; the printed names are kept as they appear, current names are on the species pages and the topic page.

- [](https://floreboard.com/plants/plates/labillardiere-13.jpg)Eucalyptus globulusRelation du voyage à la recherche de La Pérouse (Atlas) · No 13 · 1800, Pierre-Joseph Redouté
- [](https://floreboard.com/plants/plates/paradisus-londinensis-eucalyptus-obliqua.jpg)Eucalyptus obliquaThe Paradisus Londinensis · 1805, William Hooker
- [](https://floreboard.com/plants/plates/bot-mag-73-4333.jpg)Eucalyptus macrocarpaCurtis's Botanical Magazine · 4333 · 1847, Walter Hood Fitch
- [](https://floreboard.com/plants/plates/flore-des-serres-735.jpg)Eucalyptus cocciferaFlore des serres et des jardins de l'Europe · 735 · 1851,

## Growing, cut-foliage handling and safety

The RHS notes that eucalypts usually have disc-like juvenile leaves and long pointed adult leaves, the juvenile foliage being prized by gardeners and florists; coppicing or pollarding every few years in spring keeps the size down and the juvenile leaves coming. Young trees grow fast, 1 m or more a year.

For silver dollar eucalyptus, Floralife advises storing at 3–5 °C and 75–85% relative humidity; vase life is 20 days or more, and it must never freeze. Re-cut stems and place them in lukewarm water with flower food; the foliage should be evenly coloured without interveinal chlorosis. Under water stress it produces ethylene, and warm, poorly handled foliage can release enough to harm ethylene-sensitive flowers, though this is not a concern under normal conditions. To dry it, hang it upside down so it keeps its leaves and shape. The ASPCA lists Eucalyptus as toxic to dogs, cats and horses through essential oils such as eucalyptol, with salivation, vomiting, diarrhoea, depression and weakness.

## Further reading

- [Flower guide](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/eucalyptus/)
- [Reference library](https://floreboard.com/en/library/)

## References

- [WCVP · World Checklist of Vascular Plants (via ChecklistBank dataset 2232)](https://www.checklistbank.org/dataset/2232) · accessed 2026-10-24
- [Kew (POWO data on the ColPlanta site) · Eucalyptus, with notes from Flora Zambesiaca, Flora of Somalia, Flora of Tropical East Africa and Trees of New Guinea](https://colplanta.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:27534-1/general-information)
- [RHS · How to grow eucalyptus](https://www.rhs.org.uk/plants/eucalyptus/growing-guide)
- [Floralife · Eucalyptus (Silver Dollar) care and handling](https://floralife.com/flowers/eucalyptus-silver-dollar/)
- [ASPCA Animal Poison Control · Eucalyptus](https://www.aspca.org/pet-care/animal-poison-control/toxic-and-non-toxic-plants/eucalyptus)

Names, places of publication, synonyms and distribution checked against WCVP (2026-10-24); the text follows the cited sources and awaits specialist review.


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<!-- https://floreboard.com/en/plants/strelitzia/ -->

Curtis's Botanical Magazine · 119 · 1790 · public domain

# Strelitzia Banks

bird-of-paradise flowers · Strelitziaceae

- **Accepted name:** Strelitzia Banks
- **First published:** Icon. Strelitzia reginae (1788)
- **Family:** Strelitziaceae
- **Accepted species:** 6 (including 1 natural hybrids)
- **Native range:** 7 TDWG regions, southern Mozambique to South Africa
- **Common names:** bird-of-paradise flowers
- **Databases:** [POWO](https://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:37365-1) · [IPNI](https://www.ipni.org/n/37365-1) · [WCVP](https://www.checklistbank.org/dataset/2232/taxon/267238) · [Catalogue of Life](https://www.catalogueoflife.org/data/taxon/8W3VC) · [GBIF](https://www.gbif.org/species/7668300)

## Overview

Strelitzia belongs to the family Strelitziaceae; Kew gives its native range as southern Mozambique to South Africa. SANBI counts five species in southern Africa; those WCVP accepts are listed below.

The crane flower, S. reginae, is one of the most popular horticultural perennials in the world, flowering for long periods with vivid orange and purple-blue inflorescences that suit pots and cutting (SANBI). It grows wild only along the eastern coast of South Africa, from Humansdorp to northern KwaZulu-Natal, in coastal bush and thicket, often on sunny river banks.

## Classification and characters

WCVP cites Banks’s Icones Strelitzia reginae (1788) as the place of publication. SANBI explains that the genus honours Queen Charlotte, wife of George III, of the house of Mecklenburg-Strelitz; the epithet reginae is Latin for “of the queen”.

SANBI describes the crane flower as a tufted, evergreen, stemless perennial up to 1.5 m tall and 2 m across, with fleshy finger-like roots and fan-arranged, banana-like leaves with blades about 50 × 10 cm. The 70 cm flower stalk ends in a boat-shaped spathe about 20 cm long from which four to six flowers emerge in succession, producing a mucilage as they open; the sepals are orange and the petals blue-purple. The plate above is from Curtis’s Botanical Magazine, plate 119 (1790).

| Genus name | Published in |
| --- | --- |

## Distribution

WCVP records the genus as native to 7 TDWG botanical regions and introduced in 11 more.

BotswanaCape ProvincesEswatiniKwaZulu-NatalMozambiqueNorthern ProvincesZimbabwe

### Introduced

BangladeshComorosJuan Fernández Is.Mexico CentralMexico GulfMexico NortheastMexico SoutheastMexico SouthwestNew South WalesQueenslandSicilia

## Accepted species

The full list is on https://floreboard.com/en/plants/strelitzia/#species.

## Historic plates

Plates in date order; the printed names are kept as they appear, current names are on the species pages and the topic page.

- [](https://floreboard.com/plants/plates/bm-119.jpg)Strelitzia ReginæCurtis's Botanical Magazine · 119 · 1790,
- [](https://floreboard.com/plants/plates/bot-mag-4-120.jpg)Strelitzia reginaeCurtis's Botanical Magazine · 120 · 1791,
- [](https://floreboard.com/plants/plates/bot-mag-4167.jpg)Strelitzia augustaCurtis's Botanical Magazine · 4167 · 1845, Walter Hood Fitch, Joseph Swan

## Cut-flower handling and safety

Floralife notes that tropical flowers are generally stored at 13–18 °C, but bird-of-paradise can go as low as 7 °C without chilling injury; humidity 75–85%, vase life 7–14 days, and low ethylene sensitivity. Harvest when the first flower emerges from the bract; flowers usually take three to five days to open after arrival, and stems cut too early may not open fully. Ship them dry with anti-fungal treatment; pulsing with a high-sugar solution after harvest extends shelf and vase life. Cut stems at a sharp angle; the heads are heavy, so use a strong foam; early wilting usually comes from poor water uptake, so check the stems and replace the flower food.

The ASPCA lists bird-of-paradise as toxic to dogs, cats and horses as a gastrointestinal irritant, causing mild nausea, vomiting and drowsiness, mainly from the fruit and seeds.

## Further reading

- [Flower guide](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/strelitzia/)
- [Reference library](https://floreboard.com/en/library/)

## References

- [WCVP · World Checklist of Vascular Plants (via ChecklistBank dataset 2232)](https://www.checklistbank.org/dataset/2232) · accessed 2026-10-24
- [Kew (POWO data on the ColPlanta site) · Strelitzia native range](https://colplanta.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:37365-1/general-information)
- [SANBI PlantZAfrica · Strelitzia reginae](https://pza.sanbi.org/strelitzia-reginae)
- [Floralife · Bird of Paradise care and handling](https://floralife.com/flowers/bird-of-paradise/)
- [ASPCA Animal Poison Control · Bird of Paradise Flower (Strelitzia reginae)](https://www.aspca.org/pet-care/animal-poison-control/toxic-and-non-toxic-plants/bird-paradise-flower)

Names, places of publication, synonyms and distribution checked against WCVP (2026-10-24); the text follows the cited sources and awaits specialist review.


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<!-- https://floreboard.com/en/plants/antirrhinum/ -->

La botanique de J.J. Rousseau · Pl. 24 · 1805 · Pierre-Joseph Redouté · public domain

# Antirrhinum L.

snapdragons · Plantaginaceae

- **Accepted name:** Antirrhinum L.
- **First published:** Sp. Pl.: 616 (1753)
- **Family:** Plantaginaceae
- **Accepted species:** 35 (including 8 natural hybrids)
- **Native range:** 11 TDWG regions, the western and central Mediterranean
- **Common names:** snapdragons
- **Databases:** [POWO](https://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:37430-1) · [IPNI](https://www.ipni.org/n/37430-1) · [WCVP](https://www.checklistbank.org/dataset/2232/taxon/2642458) · [Catalogue of Life](https://www.catalogueoflife.org/data/taxon/XQV) · [GBIF](https://www.gbif.org/species/3172000)

## Overview

Antirrhinum belongs to the plantain family, Plantaginaceae; Kew gives its native range as the western and central Mediterranean. The cut snapdragon is A. majus, which WCVP records as native to France and Spain and introduced or naturalised in about 80 regions.

## Classification and naming

Linnaeus published the genus in Species Plantarum in 1753; several of the species WCVP accepts are natural hybrids (names with ×), listed below. The plate above is Redouté’s plate 24 for La botanique de J.J. Rousseau (1805), inscribed “Antirrhinum majus Lin.”

| Genus name | Published in |
| --- | --- |
| Anthirrinum Moench | Methodus: 521 (1794) |
| Antrizon Raf. | Autik. Bot.: 159 (1840) |

## Distribution

WCVP records the genus as native to 11 TDWG botanical regions and introduced in 80 more.

AlgeriaFranceItalyLebanon-SyriaLibyaMoroccoPalestinePortugalSiciliaSpainTunisia

### Introduced

Introduced regions (80)

AlabamaAlbaniaArgentina NortheastAssamAustriaAzoresBalearesBangladeshBelgiumBritish ColumbiaBulgariaCaliforniaCanary Is.ConnecticutCubaCyprusCzechia-SlovakiaDistrict of ColumbiaDominican RepublicEast Aegean Is.East European RussiaEast HimalayaEaster Is.GermanyGreat BritainGreeceGuatemalaHaitiIllinoisIndiaIowaIrelandJamaicaJuan Fernández Is.KazakhstanKoreaKritiKrymLeeward Is.LouisianaMadeiraMassachusettsMexico CentralMexico GulfMexico NortheastMexico SoutheastMichiganMissouriNetherlandsNew MexicoNew YorkNew Zealand NorthNew Zealand SouthNorth European RussiaNW. Balkan Pen.OhioOntarioOregonPennsylvaniaPeruPuerto RicoQuébecRomaniaSardegnaSouth European RussiaSwitzerlandTadzhikistanTasmaniaTrinidad-TobagoTürkiyeTürkiye-in-EuropeUruguayUtahUzbekistanVenezuelaVermontVietnamVirginiaWashingtonWisconsin

## Accepted species

The full list is on https://floreboard.com/en/plants/antirrhinum/#species.

## Historic plates

Plates in date order; the printed names are kept as they appear, current names are on the species pages and the topic page.

- [](https://floreboard.com/plants/plates/botanique-rousseau-24.jpg)Antirrhinum majus Lin.La botanique de J.J. Rousseau · Pl. 24 · 1805, Pierre-Joseph Redouté
- [](https://floreboard.com/plants/plates/gartenflora-antirrhinum-molle.jpg)Antirrhinum molleGartenflora · 1853,

## Cut-flower handling

Floralife advises harvesting when two to five florets per stem are open, choosing straight stems with healthy, unyellowed leaves; store at 1–3 °C and 75–85% relative humidity; vase life is 5–10 days; avoid softened water. Most cultivars are ethylene-sensitive, shattering being the commonest symptom, so treat with an ethylene action inhibitor; buds may not open after ethylene damage or long storage. Snapdragons are extremely sensitive to gravity and bend upwards when stored or shipped horizontally; bent stems can straighten when hydrated under direct, bright light.

They perform well in foam and are good vertical line flowers. They are susceptible to botrytis. Do not remove more leaves than necessary, as that can make flowers fall; as the upper flowers open the lower ones die naturally; better light and flower food help against fading colour.

## Further reading

- [Flower guide](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/snapdragon/)
- [Reference library](https://floreboard.com/en/library/)

## References

- [WCVP · World Checklist of Vascular Plants (via ChecklistBank dataset 2232)](https://www.checklistbank.org/dataset/2232) · accessed 2026-10-24
- [Kew (POWO data on the ColPlanta site) · Antirrhinum native range](https://colplanta.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:37430-1/general-information)
- [Floralife · Snapdragon care and handling](https://floralife.com/flowers/snapdragon/)

Names, places of publication, synonyms and distribution checked against WCVP (2026-10-24); the text follows the cited sources and awaits specialist review.


---

<!-- https://floreboard.com/en/plants/matthiola/ -->

Favourite Flowers of Garden and Greenhouse · Pl. 22 · 1896 · public domain

# Matthiola W.T.Aiton

stocks · Brassicaceae

- **Accepted name:** Matthiola W.T.Aiton
- **First published:** Hortus Kew., ed. 2. 4: 119 (1812)
- **Family:** Brassicaceae
- **Accepted species:** 54 (including 0 natural hybrids)
- **Native range:** 64 TDWG regions, Europe to south-central Siberia and the Himalaya, Macaronesia to Arabia, and north-east tropical and southern Africa
- **Common names:** stocks
- **Databases:** [POWO](https://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:331760-2) · [IPNI](https://www.ipni.org/n/331760-2) · [WCVP](https://www.checklistbank.org/dataset/2232/taxon/2357966) · [Catalogue of Life](https://www.catalogueoflife.org/data/taxon/C7NM9) · [GBIF](https://www.gbif.org/species/3052933)

## Overview

Matthiola belongs to the cabbage family, Brassicaceae; Kew gives its native range as Europe to south-central Siberia and the Himalaya, Macaronesia to Arabia, and north-east tropical and southern Africa. Flora of Somalia gives some 50–60 species, mostly in the eastern Mediterranean and Iranian regions. The florist’s stock is M. incana, which WCVP records as native along the northern Mediterranean, from Spain, France, Italy, Greece and Albania to Lebanon–Syria.

## Classification and characters

WCVP cites the second edition of W. T. Aiton’s Hortus Kewensis (1812) as the place of publication. Flora of Tropical East Africa describes annual herbs to subshrubs, more or less branched; petals purplish, violet or dirty white and clearly clawed; the fruit a linear silique, round or flattened, sometimes beaded, without cross-walls; and a nearly stalkless, conical, two-lobed stigma. Flora of Somalia adds that the flowers are large with pink to purple petals.

The plate above, Favourite Flowers plate 22 (1896), shows the ten-week stock, printed Mathiola annua; WCVP places Matthiola annua under M. incana subsp. incana.

| Genus name | Published in |
| --- | --- |
| Acinotum Rchb. | Handb. Nat. Pfl.-Syst.: 260 (1837) |
| Gakenia Heist. ex Fabr. | Enum. Meth. Pl.: 161 (1759) |
| Mathiolaria Chevall. | Fl. Gén. Env. Paris, ed. 2, 2: 910 (1836) |
| Mattiola Sanguin. | Atti Accad. Pontif. Sci. Nuovi Lincei 15: 36 (1862) |
| Promicrantha Dvořák | Folia Prir. Fak. Univ. J. E. Purkyne 13(4): 55 (1972) |
| Triceras Andrz. ex Rchb. | Consp. Regn. Veg.: 185 (1828) |

## Distribution

WCVP records the genus as native to 64 TDWG botanical regions and introduced in 30 more.

Native regions (64)

AfghanistanAlbaniaAlgeriaBalearesBulgariaCanary Is.Cape ProvincesCentral European RussiaCorseCyprusDjiboutiEast Aegean Is.East European RussiaEgyptEthiopiaFranceFree StateGreat BritainGreeceIranIraqIrelandItalyKazakhstanKenyaKirgizstanKrasnoyarskKritiKrymKuwaitLebanon-SyriaLesothoLibyaMadeiraMauritaniaMongoliaMoroccoNamibiaNorth CaucasusNorthern ProvincesNW. Balkan Pen.PakistanPalestinePortugalSardegnaSaudi ArabiaSiciliaSinaiSomaliaSouth European RussiaSpainSwitzerlandTadzhikistanTibetTranscaucasusTunisiaTürkiyeTürkiye-in-EuropeTurkmenistanUkraineUzbekistanWest HimalayaWestern SaharaXinjiang

### Introduced

AlbertaArgentina SouthArizonaAzoresBaltic StatesBermudaBoliviaCaliforniaCaroline Is.Chile NorthColombiaCzechia-SlovakiaEcuadorGermanyIllinoisJuan Fernández Is.Mexico NorthwestMexico SouthwestNew MexicoNorfolk Is.OntarioPeruPrimoryeRomaniaSaskatchewanSouth AustraliaTasmaniaTexasVictoriaWestern Australia

## Accepted species

The full list is on https://floreboard.com/en/plants/matthiola/#species.

## Historic plates

Plates in date order; the printed names are kept as they appear, current names are on the species pages and the topic page.

- [](https://floreboard.com/plants/plates/bot-mag-729.jpg)Cheiranthus tristisCurtis's Botanical Magazine · 729 · 1804, Sydenham Edwards
- [](https://floreboard.com/plants/plates/favourite-flowers-22.jpg)Ten-week Stock (Mathiola annua)Favourite Flowers of Garden and Greenhouse · Pl. 22 · 1896,

## Cut-flower handling

Floralife says stocks are harvested when about six florets are open; avoid spikes with yellow leaves or discoloured or infected florets. Store at 1–3 °C and 75–85% relative humidity; vase life is 5–10 days, and they do well in foam if hydrated enough. Ethylene sensitivity is medium to high, accelerating senescence and causing water-soaked petals and downward-curling leaves, so treatment with an ethylene action inhibitor or STS is recommended.

Stocks foul the water rapidly and bacteria impede uptake, so change the solution frequently and check levels daily. They have a pleasing clove-like scent. They are susceptible to botrytis and mildew: treat against botrytis before transport and storage and keep buckets and vases clean; they need air around them, as massing them too tightly makes the florets deteriorate. Leaf yellowing comes from poor growing conditions or improper handling in storage and transport.

## Further reading

- [Flower guide](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/stock/)
- [Reference library](https://floreboard.com/en/library/)

## References

- [WCVP · World Checklist of Vascular Plants (via ChecklistBank dataset 2232)](https://www.checklistbank.org/dataset/2232) · accessed 2026-10-24
- [Kew (POWO data on the ColPlanta site) · Matthiola, with genus descriptions from Flora of Tropical East Africa and Flora of Somalia](https://colplanta.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:331760-2/general-information)
- [Floralife · Stock care and handling](https://floralife.com/flowers/stock/)

Names, places of publication, synonyms and distribution checked against WCVP (2026-10-24); the text follows the cited sources and awaits specialist review.


---

<!-- https://floreboard.com/en/plants/agapanthus/ -->

Curtis's Botanical Magazine · 500 · 1800 · Sydenham Edwards · public domain

# Agapanthus L'Hér.

African lilies · Amaryllidaceae

- **Accepted name:** Agapanthus L'Hér.
- **First published:** Sert. Angl.: 17 (1788)
- **Family:** Amaryllidaceae
- **Accepted species:** 8 (including 0 natural hybrids)
- **Native range:** 7 TDWG regions, Mozambique to South Africa
- **Common names:** African lilies
- **Databases:** [POWO](https://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:331131-2) · [IPNI](https://www.ipni.org/n/331131-2) · [WCVP](https://www.checklistbank.org/dataset/2232/taxon/293520) · [Catalogue of Life](https://www.catalogueoflife.org/data/taxon/8VTF6) · [GBIF](https://www.gbif.org/species/9471670)

## Overview

Agapanthus belongs to the family Amaryllidaceae; Kew gives its native range as Mozambique to South Africa. WCVP accepts only a handful of species, listed below. The florists’ agapanthus is recorded in the identity table as A. praecox.

The RHS divides garden agapanthus into two kinds: deciduous types lose their leaves in autumn and are “the toughest, hardiest agapanthus”, while evergreen types are more tender and best overwintered in a cool greenhouse, or grown in containers and brought indoors in cold areas. They flower from midsummer into early autumn, mainly in blues with purples and whites, and range from about 20–60 cm to 1.5 m tall.

## Classification and characters

WCVP cites L’Héritier’s Sertum Anglicum (1788) as the place of publication and treats Abumon, Mauhlia and Heister’s Tulbaghia of 1755 as synonyms. The last only shares its name with the society-garlic genus, Tulbaghia L.; it is not the same genus.

Flora Zambesiaca describes the genus as perennial geophytic herbs with an upright stem and thick rhizomes, fusiform fleshy roots, and linear leaves with smooth, ridged margins.

| Genus name | Published in |
| --- | --- |
| Abumon Adans. | Fam. Pl. 2: 54 (1763) |
| Mauhlia Dahl | Observ. Bot.: 25 (1787) |
| Tulbaghia Heist. | Beschr. Neu. Geschl.: 15 (1755) |

## Distribution

WCVP records the genus as native to 7 TDWG botanical regions and introduced in 25 more.

Cape ProvincesEswatiniFree StateKwaZulu-NatalLesothoMozambiqueNorthern Provinces

### Introduced

AscensionAzoresCanary Is.Costa RicaEritreaEthiopiaFranceGreat BritainHondurasJamaicaMadeiraMexico CentralMexico GulfMexico SoutheastMexico SouthwestNew Zealand NorthNew Zealand SouthNorfolk Is.PortugalSt.HelenaTasmaniaTrinidad-TobagoTristan da CunhaVictoriaWest Himalaya

## Accepted species

The full list is on https://floreboard.com/en/plants/agapanthus/#species.

## Historic plates

Plates in date order; the printed names are kept as they appear, current names are on the species pages and the topic page.

- [](https://floreboard.com/plants/plates/bm-500.jpg)Agapanthus umbellatusCurtis's Botanical Magazine · 500 · 1800, Sydenham Edwards
- [](https://floreboard.com/plants/plates/les-liliacees-4.jpg)Agapanthus UmbellatusLes Liliacées · 4 · 1805, Pierre-Joseph Redouté
- [](https://floreboard.com/plants/plates/choix-belles-fleurs-agapanthus-praecox.jpg)Agapanthus ombellifèreChoix des plus belles fleurs · 1837,
- [](https://floreboard.com/plants/plates/bot-register-7.jpg)Agapanthus umbellatusEdwards's Botanical Register · 7 · 1843, Sarah Anne Drake, G. Barclay
- [](https://floreboard.com/plants/plates/favourite-flowers-agapanthus-africanus.jpg)Agapanthus umbellatusFavourite Flowers of Garden and Greenhouse · Pl. 274 · 1897,

## Cut-flower handling

The Floral Design Institute advises buying stems just before the first florets open, choosing tight clusters that show colour or have only a few open blooms. Remove 5–8 cm (two to three inches) of stem with a sharp knife and hydrate in water with commercial flower food before storing or using; store at 1–2 °C (34–36 °F). Vase life is 6–12 days, with florets opening in succession over several days.

Agapanthus is sensitive to ethylene. Premature floret drop is caused mainly by ethylene, especially in immature buds, and white cultivars drop more readily than blue ones.

## Further reading

- [Flower guide](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/agapanthus/)
- [Reference library](https://floreboard.com/en/library/)

## References

- [WCVP · World Checklist of Vascular Plants (via ChecklistBank dataset 2232)](https://www.checklistbank.org/dataset/2232) · accessed 2026-10-28
- [Kew (POWO data on the ColPlanta site) · Agapanthus native range, with characters from Flora Zambesiaca](https://colplanta.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:331131-2/general-information)
- [RHS · Agapanthus growing guide](https://www.rhs.org.uk/plants/agapanthus/growing-guide)
- [Floral Design Institute flower library · Agapanthus](https://www.floraldesigninstitute.com/blogs/resources-flower-library/agapanthus)

Names, places of publication, synonyms and distribution checked against WCVP (2026-10-28); the text follows the cited sources and awaits specialist review.


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<!-- https://floreboard.com/en/plants/limonium/ -->

Curtis's Botanical Magazine · 71 · 1789 · public domain

# Limonium Mill.

sea lavenders · Plumbaginaceae

- **Accepted name:** Limonium Mill.
- **First published:** Gard. Dict. Abr., ed. 4.: [s.p.] (1754)
- **Family:** Plumbaginaceae
- **Accepted species:** 626 (including 18 natural hybrids)
- **Native range:** 150 TDWG regions, temperate and subtropical regions, east to the Philippines
- **Common names:** sea lavenders
- **Databases:** [POWO](https://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:331722-2) · [IPNI](https://www.ipni.org/n/331722-2) · [WCVP](https://www.checklistbank.org/dataset/2232/taxon/2495446) · [Catalogue of Life](https://www.catalogueoflife.org/data/taxon/62YMP) · [GBIF](https://www.gbif.org/species/3082293)

## Overview

Limonium belongs to the family Plumbaginaceae. Flora of China counts about 300 species worldwide, 22 of them in China; WCVP accepts more, including many natural hybrids, listed below. Kew gives the native range as temperate and subtropical regions east to the Philippines.

The florists’ statice is L. sinuatum. Chinese florists sell it as 勿忘我, “forget-me-not”, though it is unrelated to the true forget-me-nots, Myosotis, in the borage family; the finer sea-lavender fillers are other species and hybrids of the genus. Kew records L. sinuatum as native to Macaronesia and the Mediterranean to the western Sahara and western Caucasus, an annual or perennial herb.

## Classification and characters

The name Limonium Mill. (1754) is conserved; Linnaeus’s Statice of 1753 is rejected, so the trade name “statice” is no longer used botanically (Flora of China).

Flora of China describes herbs or shrublets, the stems often reduced to a caudex, with alternate leaves usually crowded in rosettes. The much-branched, often flat-topped inflorescence ends in spikes of 2–13 spikelets in two rows, each with one to five flowers. The calyx is funnel-shaped to tubular, with a scarious, expanded limb that is 5- or 10-lobed; the corolla is joined at the base. The “flower colour” florists buy is mostly this papery calyx limb, which is why it keeps its colour when dried. Flora of Tropical East Africa describes L. sinuatum with narrow crisp wings on the stem and pinnately lobed leaves; the calyx is 6–7 mm with a broad purple limb, and the corolla is yellow or pink.

| Genus name | Published in |
| --- | --- |
| Afrolimon Lincz. | Novosti Sist. Vyssh. Rast. 16: 167 (1979) |
| Eremolimon Lincz. | Novosti Sist. Vyssh. Rast. 22: 200 (1985) |
| Eurychiton Nimmo | J.Graham, Cat. Pl. Bombay: Add. (1839) |
| Linczevskia Tzvelev | Konspekt Fl. Kavkaza 3(2): 283 (2012) |
| Plegorhiza Molina | Sag. Stor. Nat. Chili: 164 (1782) |
| Taxanthema Neck. ex R.Br. | Prodr. Fl. Nov. Holland.: 426 (1810) |

## Distribution

WCVP records the genus as native to 150 TDWG botanical regions and introduced in 4 more.

Native regions (150)

AfghanistanAlabamaAlbaniaAlgeriaAltayArgentina NortheastArgentina NorthwestArgentina SouthArizonaAzoresBalearesBelgiumBermudaBrazil SouthBrazil SoutheastBulgariaBuryatiyaCaliforniaCanary Is.Cape ProvincesCape VerdeCentral European RussiaChadChile CentralChile NorthChina North-CentralChina South-CentralChina SoutheastChitaConnecticutCorseCyprusCzechia-SlovakiaDelawareDenmarkDjiboutiDominican RepublicEast Aegean Is.East European RussiaEgyptEritreaEthiopiaFloridaFranceFree StateGeorgiaGermanyGreat BritainGreeceGulf StatesHaitiHungaryInner MongoliaIranIraqIrelandIrkutskItalyJapanKazakhstanKenyaKirgizstanKoreaKrasnoyarskKritiKrymKuwaitLabradorLebanon-SyriaLibyaLouisianaMadeiraMaineMalukuManchuriaMarylandMassachusettsMauritaniaMexico NortheastMexico NorthwestMississippiMongoliaMoroccoNamibiaNansei-shotoNetherlandsNevadaNew BrunswickNew CaledoniaNew HampshireNew JerseyNew MexicoNew South WalesNew YorkNewfoundlandNorth CarolinaNorth CaucasusNorwayNova ScotiaNW. Balkan Pen.Ogasawara-shotoOklahomaOmanOregonPakistanPalestinePhilippinesPortugalPrimoryePrince Edward I.QinghaiQuébecQueenslandRhode I.RomaniaSardegnaSaudi ArabiaSelvagensSiciliaSinaiSocotraSomaliaSouth CarolinaSouth European RussiaSpainSudan-South SudanSwedenTadzhikistanTaiwanTasmaniaTexasTibetTranscaucasusTunisiaTürkiyeTürkiye-in-EuropeTurkmenistanTurks-Caicos Is.TuvaUkraineUruguayUzbekistanVictoriaVietnamVirginiaWest HimalayaWest SiberiaWestern SaharaXinjiangYemen

### Introduced

AustriaMexico CentralMexico SouthwestWashington

## Accepted species

The full list is on https://floreboard.com/en/plants/limonium/#species.

## Historic plates

Plates in date order; the printed names are kept as they appear, current names are on the species pages and the topic page.

- [](https://floreboard.com/plants/plates/bm-71.jpg)Statice sinuataCurtis's Botanical Magazine · 71 · 1789,
- [](https://floreboard.com/plants/plates/bot-mag-3776.jpg)Statice arboreaCurtis's Botanical Magazine · 3776 · 1840, Walter Hood Fitch, Joseph Swan
- [](https://floreboard.com/plants/plates/flore-des-serres-limonium-frutescens.jpg)Statice frutescensFlore des serres et des jardins de l'Europe · 1848, L. Stroobant, Louis van Houtte
- [](https://floreboard.com/plants/plates/bot-mag-5158.jpg)Statice bonduelleiCurtis's Botanical Magazine · 5158 · 1860, Walter Hood Fitch

## Fresh and dried cut-flower handling

Floralife’s statice sheet: harvest when about 50–70% of the flowers are open or showing colour; store at 1–3 °C and 75–85% humidity in medium-quality water, avoiding softened water; vase life 7–14 days, ethylene sensitivity usually low, and it performs well in foam. Unpack boxes at once so bunches can air, especially sleeved ones, and do not overfill buckets, as the product moulds quickly without air. The main problems are yellowing leaves and stems, grey mould (botrytis), and condensation in packed boxes rotting and shattering the flowers towards the centre of the bunch.

Floralife’s Limonium sheet, for the sea-lavender fillers: vase life varies by cultivar from 4 to 16 days; ethylene sensitivity is low but varies, and ethylene action inhibitors have been shown to extend vase life. Pull the plastic sleeve down on arrival to stop condensation, and change the water often. These have a musky smell some compare to cat urine, so avoid them in confined, poorly ventilated rooms.

Both dry easily: hang the stems upside down in a cool, airy place for several days, and they keep their colour.

## Further reading

- [Flower guide](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/statice/)
- [Reference library](https://floreboard.com/en/library/)

## References

- [WCVP · World Checklist of Vascular Plants (via ChecklistBank dataset 2232)](https://www.checklistbank.org/dataset/2232) · accessed 2026-10-28
- [Flora of China vol. 15 · Limonium](http://www.efloras.org/florataxon.aspx?flora_id=2&taxon_id=118606)
- [Kew (POWO data on the ColPlanta site) · Limonium sinuatum, with Flora of Tropical East Africa](https://colplanta.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:686979-1/general-information)
- [Floralife · Statice care and handling](https://floralife.com/flowers/statice/)
- [Floralife · Limonium care and handling](https://floralife.com/flowers/limonium/)

Names, places of publication, synonyms and distribution checked against WCVP (2026-10-28); the text follows the cited sources and awaits specialist review.


---

<!-- https://floreboard.com/en/plants/nelumbo/ -->

Flora de Filipinas, gran edición (Atlas) · 158 · 1880–1883 · C. Verdaguer · public domain

# Nelumbo Adans.

lotuses · Nelumbonaceae

- **Accepted name:** Nelumbo Adans.
- **First published:** Fam. Pl. 2: 76, 582 (1763)
- **Family:** Nelumbonaceae
- **Accepted species:** 2 (including 0 natural hybrids)
- **Native range:** 80 TDWG regions, eastern Europe to Asia and northern Australia; south-eastern Canada to Mexico and the Caribbean
- **Common names:** lotuses
- **Databases:** [POWO](https://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:28000-1) · [IPNI](https://www.ipni.org/n/28000-1) · [WCVP](https://www.checklistbank.org/dataset/2232/taxon/2384991) · [Catalogue of Life](https://www.catalogueoflife.org/data/taxon/5YDS) · [GBIF](https://www.gbif.org/species/2882448)

## Overview

Nelumbo is the only genus of the family Nelumbonaceae and has just two species: the sacred lotus, N. nucifera, of eastern and southern Asia to northern Australia, and the American lotus, N. lutea, of Central and North America (Flora of China; WCVP’s list is below). Kew gives the genus’s native range as eastern Europe to Asia and northern Australia, and south-eastern Canada to Mexico and the Caribbean.

Lotus was long grouped with the water lilies: the 1979 Flora Reipublicae Popularis Sinicae account cited by Flora of China treats it as a subfamily of Nymphaeaceae, whereas it is now a family of its own.

## Classification and characters

WCVP cites Adanson’s Familles des Plantes (1763) as the place of publication; Jussieu’s Nelumbium is an orthographic variant of the same name.

Flora of China describes the family as perennial aquatic herbs. The branched, creeping rhizomes swell at the tips into storage tubers late in the season. Long-stalked leaves rise from the rhizome, emergent or floating, with peltate blades and radiating veins. Solitary bisexual, insect-pollinated flowers stand above the water on long peduncles, with numerous tepals (the outer reduced, the inner large and petal-like), numerous stamens, and many carpels set separately into cavities in the flat top of the receptacle. The fruit is nut-like and indehiscent.

In N. nucifera the petioles are 1–2 m long and the round, glaucous, water-repellent blades 25–90 cm across. The flowers are 10–23 cm across with pink or white, early-falling tepals, and after flowering the receptacle enlarges into the turbinate “pod”, 5–10 cm across. It flowers from June to August in lakes and ponds or in cultivation, throughout China except Nei Mongol, Qinghai and Xizang, and is grown for its edible rhizomes and seeds (Flora of China).

| Genus name | Published in |
| --- | --- |
| Nelumbium Juss. | Gen. Pl.: 68 (1789) |
| Tamara Roxb. ex Steud. | Nomencl. Bot., ed. 2. 2: 661 (1841) |

## Distribution

WCVP records the genus as native to 80 TDWG botanical regions and introduced in 11 more.

Native regions (80)

AlabamaAmurArkansasAssamBangladeshCambodiaChina North-CentralChina South-CentralChina SoutheastColombiaConnecticutCubaDelawareDistrict of ColumbiaDominican RepublicEast HimalayaFloridaGeorgiaHainanHaitiIllinoisIndiaIndianaIowaIranJamaicaJapanJawaKansasKentuckyKhabarovskKoreaLaosLesser Sunda Is.LouisianaMaineMalayaManchuriaMarylandMassachusettsMexico GulfMexico NortheastMexico SoutheastMexico SouthwestMichiganMinnesotaMississippiMissouriMyanmarNebraskaNepalNew GuineaNew JerseyNew YorkNorth CarolinaNorth CaucasusNorthern TerritoryOhioOklahomaOntarioPakistanPennsylvaniaPhilippinesPrimoryeQueenslandRhode I.South CarolinaSouth European RussiaSri LankaTennesseeTexasThailandTranscaucasusUkraineVietnamVirginiaWest HimalayaWest VirginiaWestern AustraliaWisconsin

### Introduced

BeninCook Is.GabonItalyLeeward Is.Puerto RicoRomaniaTrinidad-TobagoVanuatuVermontWindward Is.

## Accepted species

The full list is on https://floreboard.com/en/plants/nelumbo/#species.

## Historic plates

Plates in date order; the printed names are kept as they appear, current names are on the species pages and the topic page.

- [](https://floreboard.com/plants/plates/bot-mag-23-903-a.jpg)Nelumbium speciosumCurtis's Botanical Magazine · 903 A · 1806, Sydenham Edwards, F. Sansom
- [](https://floreboard.com/plants/plates/bot-mag-23-903-b.jpg)Nelumbium speciosumCurtis's Botanical Magazine · 903 B · 1806, Sydenham Edwards
- [](https://floreboard.com/plants/plates/bot-mag-3753.jpg)Nelumbium luteumCurtis's Botanical Magazine · 3753 · 1840, Walter Hood Fitch, Joseph Swan
- [](https://floreboard.com/plants/plates/flora-filipinas-158.jpg)Nelumbium speciosumFlora de Filipinas, gran edición (Atlas) · 158 · 1880–1883, C. Verdaguer
- [](https://floreboard.com/plants/plates/favourite-flowers-17.jpg)Nelumbium speciosumFavourite Flowers of Garden and Greenhouse · Pl. 17 · 1896,

## Lotus pods as florists’ material

The Floral Design Institute notes that dried lotus pods are available all year and fresh pods in late summer and autumn. Choose unblemished fresh pods and sturdy, undamaged dried ones. Cut the stems with a sharp knife and hydrate for two hours in water with commercial flower food before storing or using; store at 2–3 °C (36–38 °F). Vase life is 10–14 days and the pods are not ethylene sensitive. They are used mostly as dried material, turning from green to brown as they mature and dry, and make a good basing material in contemporary designs.

## Further reading

- [Flower guide](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/lotus/)
- [Flower guide](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/lotuspod/)
- [Reference library](https://floreboard.com/en/library/)

## References

- [WCVP · World Checklist of Vascular Plants (via ChecklistBank dataset 2232)](https://www.checklistbank.org/dataset/2232) · accessed 2026-10-28
- [Flora of China vol. 6 · Nelumbonaceae](http://www.efloras.org/florataxon.aspx?flora_id=2&taxon_id=10608)
- [Kew (POWO data on the ColPlanta site) · Nelumbo native range](https://colplanta.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:28000-1/general-information)
- [Flora of China vol. 6 · Nelumbo nucifera](http://www.efloras.org/florataxon.aspx?flora_id=2&taxon_id=200007079)
- [Floral Design Institute flower library · Lotus Pod](https://www.floraldesigninstitute.com/blogs/resources-flower-library/lotus-pod)

Names, places of publication, synonyms and distribution checked against WCVP (2026-10-28); the text follows the cited sources and awaits specialist review.


---

<!-- https://floreboard.com/en/plants/asparagus/ -->

L'Illustration horticole · 394 · 1880 · public domain

# Asparagus Tourn. ex L.

asparagus · Asparagaceae

- **Accepted name:** Asparagus Tourn. ex L.
- **First published:** Sp. Pl.: 313 (1753)
- **Family:** Asparagaceae
- **Accepted species:** 211 (including 0 natural hybrids)
- **Native range:** 165 TDWG regions, Europe and Africa to northern Australia
- **Common names:** asparagus
- **Databases:** [POWO](https://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:30275681-2) · [IPNI](https://www.ipni.org/n/30275681-2) · [WCVP](https://www.checklistbank.org/dataset/2232/taxon/274909) · [Catalogue of Life](https://www.catalogueoflife.org/data/taxon/8VV9B) · [GBIF](https://www.gbif.org/species/9527393)

## Overview

Asparagus belongs to the family Asparagaceae; Kew gives its native range as Europe and Africa to northern Australia. Flora of China puts the genus at 160 to 300 species across temperate and tropical Africa, Asia and Europe, 31 of them in China (15 endemic, two introduced), and Flora of Somalia notes that most grow in arid tropical or Mediterranean climates. The species WCVP accepts are listed below.

The genus includes the vegetable asparagus as well as florists’ foliage: asparagus fern, A. setaceus, and the “tree fern” of the import trade, A. virgatus.

## Classification and characters

WCVP cites Linnaeus’s Species Plantarum (1753) as the place of publication and sinks genera once split off, such as Asparagopsis, Myrsiphyllum and Protasparagus, as synonyms.

Flora of China describes perennial herbs or subshrubs, usually with short rhizomes, and erect or climbing, much-branched main stems. Clusters of cladodes — the leaf-like stems that look like the foliage — grow in the axils; they are green and flat, three-angled or nearly terete. The true leaves are pressed against the stem, not green, scale-like and spurred at the base, the spurs often lengthening into spines. The fruit is a berry.

Flora of China lists Asparagus plumosus as a synonym of A. setaceus, which is why florists still call it “plumosus”. It climbs to several metres and is slightly woody at the base; the branches spread horizontally with branchlets and cladodes in one plane, like a fern frond; the cladodes are in clusters of 10–13, each 4–5 mm long; the flowers are white and the berries purplish black. It is native to southern Africa, commonly cultivated and occasionally naturalised in China, and “much used by florists”. The Floral Design Institute stresses that it is not a true fern.

| Genus name | Published in |
| --- | --- |
| Asparagopsis (Kunth) Kunth | Abh. Königl. Akad. Wiss. Berlin 1842: 35 (1844) |
| Elachanthera F.Muell. | Vict. Naturalist 3: 108 (1886) |
| Elide Medik. | Philos. Bot. 2: 71 (1791) |
| Hecatris Salisb. | Gen. Pl.: 66 (1866) |
| Myrsiphyllum Willd. | Mag. Neuesten Entdeck. Gesammten Naturk. Ges. Naturf. Freunde Berlin 2: 25 (1808) |
| Protasparagus Oberm. | S. African J. Bot. 2: 243 (1983) |

## Distribution

WCVP records the genus as native to 165 TDWG botanical regions and introduced in 114 more.

Native regions (165)

AfghanistanAlbaniaAldabraAlgeriaAltayAmurAndaman Is.AngolaAssamAustriaBalearesBangladeshBelarusBelgiumBeninBotswanaBulgariaBurkinaBurundiBuryatiyaCambodiaCameroonCanary Is.Cape ProvincesCape VerdeCaprivi StripCentral African RepublicCentral European RussiaChadChina North-CentralChina South-CentralChina SoutheastChitaComorosCongoCorseCyprusCzechia-SlovakiaDenmarkDjiboutiDR CongoEast Aegean Is.East European RussiaEast HimalayaEgyptEquatorial GuineaEritreaEswatiniEthiopiaFranceFree StateGabonGambiaGermanyGhanaGreat BritainGreeceGuineaGuinea-BissauGulf StatesHainanHungaryIndiaInner MongoliaIranIraqIrelandIrkutskItalyIvory CoastJapanJawaKazakhstanKenyaKhabarovskKirgizstanKoreaKrasnoyarskKritiKrymKuril Is.KwaZulu-NatalLaosLebanon-SyriaLesothoLesser Sunda Is.LiberiaLibyaMadagascarMadeiraMalawiMalayaMaldivesMaliMalukuManchuriaMauritaniaMauritiusMongoliaMoroccoMozambiqueMyanmarNamibiaNansei-shotoNepalNetherlandsNigerNigeriaNorth CaucasusNorthern ProvincesNorthern TerritoryNW. Balkan Pen.OmanPakistanPalestinePhilippinesPolandPortugalPrimoryeQinghaiQueenslandRéunionRodriguesRomaniaRwandaSakhalinSardegnaSaudi ArabiaSelvagensSenegalSeychellesSiciliaSierra LeoneSinaiSocotraSomaliaSouth European RussiaSpainSri LankaSudan-South SudanSwitzerlandTadzhikistanTaiwanTanzaniaThailandTibetTogoTranscaucasusTunisiaTürkiyeTürkiye-in-EuropeTurkmenistanTuvaUgandaUkraineUzbekistanVietnamWest HimalayaWest SiberiaWestern AustraliaWestern SaharaXinjiangYemenZambiaZimbabwe

### Introduced

Introduced regions (114)

AlabamaAlbertaArgentina NortheastArgentina NorthwestArgentina SouthArizonaArkansasAzoresBaltic StatesBermudaBoliviaBrazil SouthBritish ColumbiaCaliforniaCaroline Is.Chagos ArchipelagoColoradoConnecticutCook Is.Costa RicaDelawareDistrict of ColumbiaDominican RepublicEcuadorEl SalvadorFinlandFloridaGalápagosGeorgiaHaitiHawaiiHondurasIdahoIllinoisIndianaIowaJamaicaKansasKentuckyLabradorLeeward Is.LouisianaMaineManitobaMarianasMarshall Is.MarylandMassachusettsMexico CentralMexico GulfMexico NortheastMexico NorthwestMexico SoutheastMexico SouthwestMichiganMinnesotaMississippiMissouriMontanaNauruNebraskaNevadaNew BrunswickNew CaledoniaNew HampshireNew JerseyNew MexicoNew South WalesNew YorkNew Zealand NorthNew Zealand SouthNewfoundlandNiueNorfolk Is.North CarolinaNorth DakotaNorth European RussiaNorthwest European RussiaNorwayNova ScotiaOgasawara-shotoOhioOklahomaOntarioOregonPennsylvaniaPrince Edward I.Puerto RicoQuébecRhode I.SamoaSaskatchewanSolomon Is.South AustraliaSouth CarolinaSouth DakotaSt.HelenaSwedenTasmaniaTennesseeTexasTongaTrinidad-TobagoUruguayUtahVanuatuVermontVictoriaVirginiaWashingtonWest VirginiaWindward Is.WisconsinWyoming

## Accepted species

The full list is on https://floreboard.com/en/plants/asparagus/#species.

## Historic plates

Plates in date order; the printed names are kept as they appear, current names are on the species pages and the topic page.

- [](https://floreboard.com/plants/plates/plantarum-icones-asparagus-officinalis.jpg)Asparagus officinalisPlantarum indigenarum et exoticarum icones ad vivum coloratae · 1791,
- [](https://floreboard.com/plants/plates/ih-27-394.jpg)Asparagus plumosusL'Illustration horticole · 394 · 1880,

## Cut-foliage handling and safety

The Floral Design Institute’s asparagus-fern sheet: choose turgid, flexible stems without kinks, and avoid yellowing foliage that sheds its “needles”. Dip the whole stem in an anti-transpirant to seal in moisture and prevent browning; cut about 5 cm from the stem with a sharp knife and hydrate in plain water for two hours before storing or using, and store in plain water; store at 2–5 °C (36–41 °F). Vase life is 14–20 days, and it is not ethylene sensitive. It is very sensitive to dehydration, which makes the cladodes drop.

Floralife’s A. virgatus sheet: store at 1–3 °C and 75–85% humidity, avoiding softened water; vase life 7–14 days, low ethylene sensitivity, performs well in foam. Problems include Fusarium and Alternaria infections, bacterial blight from Xanthomonas campestris causing necrotic stem lesions, yellowing cladophylls (from mites, fungi or nutrition), cladophyll drop from rough handling in transport or storage, and stem dehydration.

The ASPCA lists asparagus fern (A. densiflorus ‘Sprengeri’) as toxic to dogs and cats: repeated skin contact can cause allergic dermatitis, and eating the berries can cause vomiting, abdominal pain or diarrhoea.

## Further reading

- [Flower guide](https://floreboard.com/en/flowers/asparagus/)
- [Reference library](https://floreboard.com/en/library/)

## References

- [WCVP · World Checklist of Vascular Plants (via ChecklistBank dataset 2232)](https://www.checklistbank.org/dataset/2232) · accessed 2026-10-28
- [Kew (POWO data on the ColPlanta site) · Asparagus, with Flora of Oman and Flora of Somalia](https://colplanta.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:30275681-2/general-information)
- [Flora of China vol. 24 · Asparagus](http://www.efloras.org/florataxon.aspx?flora_id=2&taxon_id=102837)
- [Flora of China vol. 24 · Asparagus setaceus](http://www.efloras.org/florataxon.aspx?flora_id=2&taxon_id=200027577)
- [Floral Design Institute flower library · Asparagus Fern](https://www.floraldesigninstitute.com/blogs/resources-flower-library/asparagus-fern)
- [Floralife · Tree Fern (Asparagus virgatus) care and handling](https://floralife.com/flowers/tree-fern/)
- [ASPCA Animal Poison Control · Asparagus Fern](https://www.aspca.org/pet-care/aspca-poison-control/toxic-and-non-toxic-plants/asparagus-fern)

Names, places of publication, synonyms and distribution checked against WCVP (2026-10-28); the text follows the cited sources and awaits specialist review.


---

<!-- https://floreboard.com/en/plants/dracaena/ -->

Fragmenta Botanica, figuris coloratis illustrata · T. 2 · 1800–1809 · public domain

# Dracaena Vand. ex L.

dragon trees · Asparagaceae

- **Accepted name:** Dracaena Vand. ex L.
- **First published:** Mant. Pl.: 9 (1767)
- **Family:** Asparagaceae
- **Accepted species:** 225 (including 1 natural hybrids)
- **Native range:** 101 TDWG regions, the tropics and subtropics
- **Common names:** dragon trees
- **Databases:** [POWO](https://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:30010732-2) · [IPNI](https://www.ipni.org/n/30010732-2) · [WCVP](https://www.checklistbank.org/dataset/2232/taxon/304551) · [Catalogue of Life](https://www.catalogueoflife.org/data/taxon/8HFWV) · [GBIF](https://www.gbif.org/species/2752062)

## Overview

Dracaena belongs to the family Asparagaceae; Kew gives its native range as the tropics and subtropics, and the species WCVP accepts are listed below. Flora of Somalia notes that several species are grown as ornamentals, chiefly for their often patterned leaves.

Florists and plant shops sell lucky bamboo, D. sanderiana — which Kew records as a subshrub or shrub native to west-central tropical Africa to north-eastern Angola, not a bamboo at all — the snake plant, D. trifasciata, and the corn plant, D. fragrans.

## Classification and characters

WCVP cites Linnaeus’s Mantissa Plantarum (1767) as the place of publication. The most notable synonym is Sansevieria. Using nuclear and plastid DNA markers, Takawira-Nyenya and colleagues (2018) found Dracaena to be a paraphyletic grade with two Sansevieria clades nested inside it, so they argued for a broader Dracaena that absorbs Sansevieria and made new combinations for several species. WCVP follows this, which is why the snake plant is D. trifasciata rather than Sansevieria trifasciata. A later paper argued that merging all dracaenoids into one genus is premature, as the 2018 study sampled only about a fifth of the species. The synonym Cordyline Adans. merely shares its name with the ti-plant genus, Cordyline Comm. ex R.Br., which remains separate.

The floras gathered by Kew describe trees, shrubs, sometimes scandent, or herbs, the stems often with persistent leaf scars and the roots often orange; alternate leaves with a sheathing base and parallel veins; usually white or greenish, fragrant, night-opening flowers with a tubular perianth of six recurving lobes; and a globose berry, often red, orange or yellow, with one to three seeds.

| Genus name | Published in |
| --- | --- |
| × Dravieria M.H.J.van der Meer | Cact. Phantast. 2020(9)-1: 1 (2020) |
| Acyntha Medik. | Theodora: 76 (1786) |
| Chrysodracon P.L.Lu & Morden | Syst. Bot. 39: 101 (2014) |
| Cordyline Adans. | Fam. Pl. 2: 54, 543 (1763) |
| Drakaina Raf. | Fl. Tellur. 4: 17 (1838) |
| Nemampsis Raf. | Fl. Tellur. 4: 16 (1838) |
| Oedera Crantz | Duab. Drac. Arbor.: 30 (1768) |
| Pleomele Salisb. | Prodr. Stirp. Chap. Allerton: 245 (1796) |
| Salmia Cav. | Icon. 3: 24 (1795) |
| Sansevieria Petagna | Inst. Bot. 3: 643 (1787) |
| Stoerkia Crantz | Duab. Drac. Arbor.: 25 (1768) |
| Terminalis Medik. | Theodora: 83 (1786) |

## Distribution

WCVP records the genus as native to 101 TDWG botanical regions and introduced in 35 more.

Native regions (101)

AldabraAndaman Is.AngolaAssamBangladeshBelizeBeninBismarck ArchipelagoBorneoBotswanaBurkinaBurundiCabindaCambodiaCameroonCanary Is.Cape ProvincesCape VerdeCaroline Is.Central African RepublicChadChagos ArchipelagoChina South-CentralChina SoutheastColombiaComorosCongoCosta RicaCubaDjiboutiDR CongoEast HimalayaEquatorial GuineaEritreaEswatiniEthiopiaFree StateGabonGambiaGhanaGuatemalaGuineaGuinea-BissauGulf of Guinea Is.HainanHawaiiHondurasIndiaIvory CoastJawaKenyaKwaZulu-NatalLaosLesser Sunda Is.LiberiaMadagascarMalawiMalayaMaliMalukuMauritaniaMauritiusMexico GulfMexico SoutheastMexico SouthwestMoroccoMozambiqueMyanmarNamibiaNew GuineaNicobar Is.NigerNigeriaNorthern ProvincesNorthern TerritoryOmanPanamáPhilippinesQueenslandRéunionRodriguesRwandaSaudi ArabiaSenegalSeychellesSierra LeoneSocotraSolomon Is.SomaliaSri LankaSudan-South SudanSulawesiSumateraTanzaniaThailandTogoUgandaVietnamYemenZambiaZimbabwe

### Introduced

AscensionAzoresBahamasBalearesBermudaCayman Is.Cook Is.Dominican RepublicEcuadorEl SalvadorFijiFloridaGalápagosHaitiJamaicaJuan Fernández Is.Leeward Is.MadeiraMarianasMarshall Is.NauruNew Zealand NorthNiueNorfolk Is.Ogasawara-shotoPuerto RicoSardegnaSociety Is.Trinidad-TobagoTuamotuTunisiaVanuatuVenezuelan AntillesWake I.Windward Is.

## Accepted species

The full list is on https://floreboard.com/en/plants/dracaena/#species.

## Historic plates

Plates in date order; the printed names are kept as they appear, current names are on the species pages and the topic page.

- [](https://floreboard.com/plants/plates/fragmenta-2.jpg)Dracæna Draco, Sansevieria fragransFragmenta Botanica, figuris coloratis illustrata · T. 2 · 1800–1809,
- [](https://floreboard.com/plants/plates/fragmenta-botanica-33.jpg)Sansevieria fragransFragmenta Botanica, figuris coloratis illustrata · 33 · 1800,
- [](https://floreboard.com/plants/plates/bot-mag-73-4279.jpg)Cordyline rumphiiCurtis's Botanical Magazine · 4279 · 1847, Walter Hood Fitch

## Water culture and safety

Michigan State University Extension’s answer: lucky bamboo can be grown in water but is sensitive to fluoride and chlorine, both found in tap water, so rain or distilled water is recommended. The University of British Columbia article it cites says Dracaena species are easily affected, and sometimes killed, by fluoride. Keep the plant in bright, indirect light, out of direct sun.

The ASPCA lists Dracaena spp., including D. fragrans, as toxic to dogs and cats, and D. fragrans also to horses; the toxic principles are saponins, and signs include vomiting (occasionally with blood), depression, anorexia, hypersalivation and, in cats, dilated pupils. The snake plant is likewise listed as toxic to dogs and cats, causing nausea, vomiting and diarrhoea.

## Further reading

- [Reference library](https://floreboard.com/en/library/)

## References

- [WCVP · World Checklist of Vascular Plants (via ChecklistBank dataset 2232)](https://www.checklistbank.org/dataset/2232) · accessed 2026-10-28
- [Kew (POWO data on the ColPlanta site) · Dracaena, with Trees of New Guinea, Flora of Tropical East Africa and Flora of Somalia](https://colplanta.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:30010732-2/general-information)
- [Kew (POWO data on the ColPlanta site) · Dracaena sanderiana native range](https://colplanta.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:60471006-2/general-information)
- [Takawira-Nyenya et al. 2018 · Sansevieria is a herbaceous clade within Dracaena (Phytotaxa 376: 254–276)](https://phytotaxa.mapress.com/pt/article/view/25473)
- [Michigan State University Extension (Ask Extension) · growing lucky bamboo in water](https://ask.extension.org/kb/faq.php?id=390446)
- [ASPCA Animal Poison Control · Dracaena](https://www.aspca.org/pet-care/aspca-poison-control/toxic-and-non-toxic-plants/dracaena)
- [ASPCA Animal Poison Control · Snake Plant](https://www.aspca.org/pet-care/aspca-poison-control/toxic-and-non-toxic-plants/snake-plant)

Names, places of publication, synonyms and distribution checked against WCVP (2026-10-28); the text follows the cited sources and awaits specialist review.


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<!-- https://floreboard.com/en/plants/nephrolepis/ -->

Album of Indian Ferns · Plate 14 · 1887 · public domain

# Nephrolepis Schott

sword ferns · Polypodiaceae

- **Accepted name:** Nephrolepis Schott
- **First published:** Gen. Fil. (Vindob.): t. 3 (1834)
- **Family:** Polypodiaceae
- **Accepted species:** 35 (including 5 natural hybrids)
- **Native range:** 155 TDWG regions, the tropics and subtropics
- **Common names:** sword ferns
- **Databases:** [POWO](https://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:17160590-1) · [IPNI](https://www.ipni.org/n/17160590-1) · [WCVP](https://www.checklistbank.org/dataset/2232/taxon/3189735) · [Catalogue of Life](https://www.catalogueoflife.org/data/taxon/6382) · [GBIF](https://www.gbif.org/species/2650926)

## Overview

Nephrolepis is a fern genus; WCVP places it in Polypodiaceae in the broad sense (some systems keep it as a family of its own, Nephrolepidaceae), and Kew gives its native range as the tropics and subtropics. Flora of China counts about 20 species across most tropical regions, five of them in China (one introduced); WCVP accepts more, including several hybrids, listed below. Flora of the Cayman Islands notes that horticultural forms of several species are grown for ornament; the Boston fern of plant shops is recorded by the ASPCA as N. exaltata ‘Bostoniensis’.

Mind the names: “sword fern” can mean this genus (the ASPCA’s sword fern is N. biserrata), but the cut-foliage “sword fern” in the Floral Design Institute flower library is Polystichum munitum of western North America, and florists’ “leatherleaf” is Rumohra. Floreboard’s flower knowledge base currently lists 肾蕨 (Nephrolepis) as an alias of its leatherleaf entry, so this page does not yet link to the flower guide.

## Classification and characters

WCVP cites Schott’s Genera Filicum (1834) as the place of publication.

Flora of China describes terrestrial or epiphytic ferns with a short, erect rhizome producing long, wiry stolons and sometimes tubers that give rise to new plants. The stipes are tufted and the lamina once pinnate; the sessile pinnae are jointed to the rachis, lanceolate or falcate, usually asymmetric at the base and often eared on the upper side, with crenate margins. The sori are round and terminal on a veinlet, with round-reniform or crescent-shaped indusia. Flora of the Cayman Islands adds that the pinnae eventually fall from the rachis.

In N. cordifolia the stolons bear scaly tubers 1–1.5 cm across; the lamina is linear-lanceolate, 25–75 × 3–6 cm, with 40–120 pairs of pinnae. It grows in forests and along streams from near sea level to 1500 m in Fujian, Guangdong, Guangxi, Guizhou, Hainan, Hunan, Taiwan, Xizang, Yunnan and Zhejiang, and widely across Asia, Africa, Australia, the Americas and the Pacific islands (Flora of China).

| Genus name | Published in |
| --- | --- |
| Lepidoneuron Fée | Mém. Foug., 5. Gen. Filic.: 301 (1852) |
| Leptopleuria C.Presl | Tent. Pterid.: 136 (1836) |
| Lindsayoides Nakai | Ord. Fam. Trib. Gen. Sect. ... nov. ed.: 202 (1943) |

## Distribution

WCVP records the genus as native to 155 TDWG botanical regions and introduced in 20 more.

Native regions (155)

Andaman Is.AngolaArgentina NortheastArizonaAscensionAssamBahamasBangladeshBelizeBeninBermudaBismarck ArchipelagoBoliviaBorneoBrazil NorthBrazil NortheastBrazil SouthBrazil SoutheastBrazil West-CentralBurkinaBurundiCambodiaCameroonCape VerdeCaroline Is.Cayman Is.Central African RepublicCentral American Pacific Is.ChadChina South-CentralChina SoutheastChristmas I.ColombiaComorosCongoCook Is.Costa RicaCubaDominican RepublicDR CongoEast HimalayaEcuadorEl SalvadorEquatorial GuineaEthiopiaFijiFloridaFrench GuianaGabonGalápagosGhanaGuatemalaGuineaGulf of Guinea Is.GuyanaHainanHaitiHawaiiHondurasIndiaIvory CoastJamaicaJapanJawaKazan-rettoKenyaKermadec Is.KoreaKwaZulu-NatalLaccadive Is.LaosLeeward Is.Lesser Sunda Is.LiberiaLine Is.LouisianaMadagascarMalawiMalayaMaliMalukuMarianasMarquesasMarshall Is.MauritiusMexico CentralMexico GulfMexico NortheastMexico NorthwestMexico SoutheastMexico SouthwestMozambiqueMyanmarNansei-shotoNepalNetherlands AntillesNew CaledoniaNew GuineaNew South WalesNew Zealand NorthNicaraguaNicobar Is.NigeriaNiueNorfolk Is.Northern ProvincesNorthern TerritoryOgasawara-shotoPanamáPeruPhilippinesPitcairn Is.Puerto RicoQueenslandRéunionRodriguesRwandaSamoaSanta Cruz Is.SenegalSeychellesSierra LeoneSociety Is.SocotraSolomon Is.South China SeaSri LankaSudan-South SudanSulawesiSumateraSurinameTaiwanTanzaniaTexasThailandTibetTogoTokelau-ManihikiTongaTrinidad-TobagoTuamotuTubuai Is.Turks-Caicos Is.TuvaluUgandaVanuatuVenezuelaVenezuelan AntillesVietnamWallis-Futuna Is.West HimalayaWestern AustraliaWindward Is.ZambiaZimbabwe

### Introduced

AlabamaAlgeriaArgentina NorthwestArkansasAzoresCaliforniaCanary Is.Cape ProvincesEswatiniFranceGeorgiaItalyMadeiraMoroccoNew Zealand SouthPakistanParaguayPortugalSpainSt.Helena

## Accepted species

The full list is on https://floreboard.com/en/plants/nephrolepis/#species.

## Historic plates

Plates in date order; the printed names are kept as they appear, current names are on the species pages and the topic page.

- [](https://floreboard.com/plants/plates/indian-ferns-14.jpg)Nephrolepis cordifoliaAlbum of Indian Ferns · Plate 14 · 1887,

## Pet safety

The ASPCA lists the Boston fern (N. exaltata ‘Bostoniensis’) as non-toxic to dogs and cats, and N. biserrata as non-toxic to dogs, cats and horses.

## Further reading

- [Reference library](https://floreboard.com/en/library/)

## References

- [WCVP · World Checklist of Vascular Plants (via ChecklistBank dataset 2232)](https://www.checklistbank.org/dataset/2232) · accessed 2026-10-28
- [Kew (POWO data on the ColPlanta site) · Nephrolepis, with Flora of the Cayman Islands](https://colplanta.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:17160590-1/general-information)
- [Flora of China vol. 2–3 · Nephrolepis](http://www.efloras.org/florataxon.aspx?flora_id=2&taxon_id=122157)
- [Floral Design Institute flower library · Sword Fern](https://www.floraldesigninstitute.com/blogs/resources-flower-library/sword-fern)
- [ASPCA Animal Poison Control · Boston Fern](https://www.aspca.org/pet-care/aspca-poison-control/toxic-and-non-toxic-plants/boston-fern)
- [ASPCA Animal Poison Control · Sword Fern (Nephrolepis biserrata)](https://www.aspca.org/pet-care/aspca-poison-control/toxic-and-non-toxic-plants/sword-fern)
- [Flora of China vol. 2–3 · Nephrolepis cordifolia](http://www.efloras.org/florataxon.aspx?flora_id=2&taxon_id=233500798)

Names, places of publication, synonyms and distribution checked against WCVP (2026-10-28); the text follows the cited sources and awaits specialist review.


---

<!-- https://floreboard.com/en/plants/clivia/ -->

Favourite Flowers of Garden and Greenhouse · Pl. 263 · 1897 · public domain

# Clivia Lindl.

clivias · Amaryllidaceae

- **Accepted name:** Clivia Lindl.
- **First published:** Bot. Reg. 14: t. 1182 (1828)
- **Family:** Amaryllidaceae
- **Accepted species:** 8 (including 2 natural hybrids)
- **Native range:** 4 TDWG regions, South Africa
- **Common names:** clivias
- **Databases:** [POWO](https://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:1408-1) · [IPNI](https://www.ipni.org/n/1408-1) · [WCVP](https://www.checklistbank.org/dataset/2232/taxon/302699) · [Catalogue of Life](https://www.catalogueoflife.org/data/taxon/C9DGB) · [GBIF](https://www.gbif.org/species/2858144)

## Overview

Clivia belongs to the family Amaryllidaceae, and Kew records the genus as native only to South Africa; the species WCVP accepts, two of them natural hybrids, are listed below. The RHS notes that clivias come from the woodlands of South Africa.

The clivia of florists and New Year markets is mainly C. miniata, which Kew records as native to South Africa and growing as an epiphyte, chiefly in the subtropical biome. The RHS also recommends the pale yellow C. miniata var. citrina and C. nobilis, with curved red-and-yellow, green-tipped flowers.

## Classification and characters

WCVP cites Lindley’s description in the Botanical Register 14, plate 1182 (1828), as the place of publication. The synonyms Imatophyllum, Imantophyllum and Himantophyllum are 19th-century names and spellings for the same genus, often seen in old books and plates.

The RHS describes C. miniata as bearing clusters of orange, funnel-shaped flowers with a yellow throat. Flowers indoors are often unpollinated: red berries may form, but the seed inside is not viable unless the flowers were hand-pollinated, and seedlings take three to four years to flower.

| Genus name | Published in |
| --- | --- |
| Himantophyllum Spreng. | Gen. Pl. 1: 276 (1830) |
| Imantophyllum Hook. | Bot. Mag. 80: t. 4783 (1854) |
| Imatophyllum Hook. | Bot. Mag. 55: t. 2856 (1828) |

## Distribution

WCVP records the genus as native to 4 TDWG botanical regions and introduced in 3 more.

Cape ProvincesEswatiniKwaZulu-NatalNorthern Provinces

### Introduced

Mexico CentralMexico SoutheastMexico Southwest

## Accepted species

The full list is on https://floreboard.com/en/plants/clivia/#species.

## Historic plates

Plates in date order; the printed names are kept as they appear, current names are on the species pages and the topic page.

- [](https://floreboard.com/plants/plates/bot-reg-1182.jpg)Clivia nobilisEdwards's Botanical Register · 1182 · 1828,
- [](https://floreboard.com/plants/plates/favourite-flowers-263.jpg)Clivia miniataFavourite Flowers of Garden and Greenhouse · Pl. 263 · 1897,

## Pot culture and safety

The RHS advises bright, filtered or indirect light, as direct summer sun scorches the leaves. To encourage flowering, keep the plant in a cool but bright spot at about 10 °C from November to February; water sparingly in winter without letting the compost dry out completely, increase watering in spring as the flower buds form, and water regularly in summer and autumn. It warns that the sap may irritate skin, so wear gloves when handling.

The ASPCA lists clivia as toxic to dogs and cats (C. miniata also to horses): the toxic principles are lycorine and other alkaloids, causing vomiting, salivation and diarrhoea, and in large amounts convulsions, low blood pressure, tremors and cardiac arrhythmias; the bulbous base is the most poisonous part.

## Further reading

- [Reference library](https://floreboard.com/en/library/)

## References

- [WCVP · World Checklist of Vascular Plants (via ChecklistBank dataset 2232)](https://www.checklistbank.org/dataset/2232) · accessed 2026-10-28
- [Kew (POWO data on the ColPlanta site) · Clivia miniata native range and life form](https://colplanta.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:994513-1/general-information)
- [RHS · How to grow clivias](https://www.rhs.org.uk/plants/clivia/how-to-grow)
- [ASPCA Animal Poison Control · Clivia Lily](https://www.aspca.org/pet-care/aspca-poison-control/toxic-and-non-toxic-plants/clivia-lily)

Names, places of publication, synonyms and distribution checked against WCVP (2026-10-28); the text follows the cited sources and awaits specialist review.


---

<!-- https://floreboard.com/en/plants/pachira/ -->

Histoire des plantes de la Guiane Françoise · Pl. 291 · 1775 · public domain

# Pachira Aubl.

pachiras · Malvaceae

- **Accepted name:** Pachira Aubl.
- **First published:** Hist. Pl. Guiane: 725 (1775)
- **Family:** Malvaceae
- **Accepted species:** 54 (including 0 natural hybrids)
- **Native range:** 28 TDWG regions, Mexico to tropical America
- **Common names:** pachiras
- **Databases:** [POWO](https://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:26004-1) · [IPNI](https://www.ipni.org/n/26004-1) · [WCVP](https://www.checklistbank.org/dataset/2232/taxon/2412848) · [Catalogue of Life](https://www.catalogueoflife.org/data/taxon/6BMT) · [GBIF](https://www.gbif.org/species/3152234)

## Overview

Pachira belongs to the family Malvaceae (formerly Bombacaceae); Kew gives its native range as Mexico to tropical America. Flora of China counts about 50 species in tropical America, with only one, the introduced P. aquatica, cultivated in China; the species WCVP accepts are listed below.

The “money tree” of plant shops is recorded as P. aquatica by Flora of China, NC State Extension and the ASPCA. WCVP also accepts P. glabra as a separate species, which Kew records as native to south-eastern and southern Brazil, while NC State’s page lists Bombax glabrum as a former name of P. aquatica. Horticultural sources draw the line between the two differently, so the identity table records both and does not decide which species the plants on sale belong to.

## Classification and characters

WCVP cites Aublet’s Histoire des Plantes de la Guiane Françoise (1775) as the place of publication and sinks Bombacopsis, Carolinea and Rhodognaphalopsis, among others, as synonyms.

Flora of China describes trees, sometimes deciduous, spiny or buttressed, with palmately compound leaves of 3–11 leaflets. The bisexual flowers are solitary or in clusters of two or three in the leaf axils, with 90–1000 stamens joined into a tube at the base. The fruit is oblong to pear-shaped, woody or leathery, splitting into five valves and woolly inside, with large seeds up to 2.5 cm.

P. aquatica is a small tree 4–5 m tall (up to 18 m), with 5–11 leaflets, the central one 13–24 cm long. Its yellowish-green petals are narrowly lanceolate to thread-like, up to 15 cm long, with the upper half reflexed; the staminal tube is yellow below and red above, 13–15 cm long with the filaments. The capsule is nearly pear-shaped, 9–10 cm long, and the dark brown seeds have white spirals. It flowers from May to November and is cultivated in Guangdong, Taiwan and southern Yunnan; native to tropical America, it is now cultivated and naturalised throughout the tropics, and the seeds are eaten raw or roasted (Flora of China).

| Genus name | Published in |
| --- | --- |
| Bombacopsis Pittier | Contr. U.S. Natl. Herb. 18: 162 (1916) |
| Carolinea L.f. | Suppl. Pl.: 51 (1782) |
| Raussinia Neck. | Elem. Bot. 2: 419 (1790) |
| Rhodognaphalopsis A.Robyns | Bull. Jard. Bot. État Bruxelles 33: 272 (1963) |
| Sophia L. | Pl. Surin.: 11 (1775) |

## Distribution

WCVP records the genus as native to 28 TDWG botanical regions and introduced in 33 more.

BelizeBoliviaBrazil NorthBrazil NortheastBrazil SouthBrazil SoutheastColombiaCosta RicaCubaDominican RepublicEcuadorEl SalvadorFrench GuianaGuatemalaGuyanaHaitiHondurasMexico CentralMexico GulfMexico NorthwestMexico SoutheastMexico SouthwestNicaraguaPanamáPeruSurinameTrinidad-TobagoVenezuela

### Introduced

BeninBrazil West-CentralBurundiCabindaCameroonCaroline Is.ChadComorosCongoDR CongoGhanaGuineaGulf of Guinea Is.Ivory CoastJamaicaLeeward Is.LiberiaMaliMarianasNew CaledoniaNigeriaPuerto RicoRwandaSenegalSierra LeoneSudan-South SudanTanzaniaUgandaVenezuelan AntillesVietnamWindward Is.ZambiaZimbabwe

## Accepted species

The full list is on https://floreboard.com/en/plants/pachira/#species.

## Historic plates

Plates in date order; the printed names are kept as they appear, current names are on the species pages and the topic page.

- [](https://floreboard.com/plants/plates/aublet-291.jpg)Pachira AquaticaHistoire des plantes de la Guiane Françoise · Pl. 291 · 1775,

## Pot culture and safety

Flora of China notes that potted P. aquatica is very tolerant of drought and shade and is sold in many countries as a houseplant, usually with braided stems. NC State Extension adds that the trunks are flexible enough to braid together, a practice begun in Taiwan to lock in good fortune. Indoors it usually stays at 2–2.5 m (6–8 ft); it prefers indirect light or part shade, as direct sun scorches the leaves, and 18–24 °C with good humidity; the potting mix should be moist but well drained, as standing water causes root rot; and indoor or braided plants generally do not flower.

The ASPCA lists the money tree (P. aquatica) as non-toxic to dogs, cats and horses, though eating it may cause nausea, vomiting and loose stools. NC State notes that the seeds, which contain cyclopropenoid fatty acids, are the poisonous part, and can cause mild to moderate gastrointestinal upset in cats.

## Further reading

- [Reference library](https://floreboard.com/en/library/)

## References

- [WCVP · World Checklist of Vascular Plants (via ChecklistBank dataset 2232)](https://www.checklistbank.org/dataset/2232) · accessed 2026-10-28
- [Kew (POWO data on the ColPlanta site) · Pachira native range](https://colplanta.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:26004-1/general-information)
- [Flora of China vol. 12 · Pachira](http://www.efloras.org/florataxon.aspx?flora_id=2&taxon_id=123560)
- [Flora of China vol. 12 · Pachira aquatica](http://www.efloras.org/florataxon.aspx?flora_id=2&taxon_id=250009201)
- [NC State Extension Plant Toolbox · Pachira aquatica](https://plants.ces.ncsu.edu/plants/all/pachira-aquatica/)
- [ASPCA Animal Poison Control · Money Tree](https://www.aspca.org/pet-care/aspca-poison-control/toxic-and-non-toxic-plants/money-tree)

Names, places of publication, synonyms and distribution checked against WCVP (2026-10-28); the text follows the cited sources and awaits specialist review.


---

<!-- https://floreboard.com/en/plants/guzmania/ -->

Curtis's Botanical Magazine · 5220 · 1860 · Walter Hood Fitch · public domain

# Guzmania Ruiz & Pav.

guzmanias · Bromeliaceae

- **Accepted name:** Guzmania Ruiz & Pav.
- **First published:** Fl. Peruv. 3: 37 (1802)
- **Family:** Bromeliaceae
- **Accepted species:** 217 (including 2 natural hybrids)
- **Native range:** 32 TDWG regions, Florida to tropical America
- **Common names:** guzmanias
- **Databases:** [POWO](https://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:326846-2) · [IPNI](https://www.ipni.org/n/326846-2) · [WCVP](https://www.checklistbank.org/dataset/2232/taxon/247418) · [Catalogue of Life](https://www.catalogueoflife.org/data/taxon/8VXZW) · [GBIF](https://www.gbif.org/species/2698853)

## Overview

Guzmania belongs to the bromeliad family, Bromeliaceae; Kew gives its native range as Florida to tropical America, and WCVP accepts more than two hundred species, listed below. University of Florida IFAS describes guzmanias as common houseplants with smooth green leaves and showy flower spikes, some of which can be grown outdoors in frost-free areas.

The scarlet star of the pot-plant trade is mainly G. lingulata and its hybrids. Kew records it as native to south-eastern Mexico to tropical America, a perennial or epiphyte growing chiefly in the wet tropics.

## Classification and characters

WCVP cites Ruiz and Pavón’s Flora Peruviana et Chilensis vol. 3 (1802) as the place of publication and sinks Massangea, Schlumbergeria, Sodiroa and Thecophyllum, among others, as synonyms.

University of Florida IFAS explains two bromeliad traits. Epiphytes are not parasites: they use trees only for support and make their own energy. And bromeliads take in water and nutrients mainly through their leaves and the cups formed by their leaf bases. Light changes leaf colour, shape and growth rate: too little gives long, thin, greener leaves, and too much gives shorter, thicker, paler ones. Flower spikes last from a few weeks to as long as six months in some genera.

| Genus name | Published in |
| --- | --- |
| Chirripoa Suess. | Bot. Jahrb. Syst. 72: 293 (1942) |
| Devillea Bertero ex Schult. & Schult.f. | J.J.Roemer & J.A.Schultes, Syst. Veg., ed. 15[bis]. 7: 1229 (1830) |
| Massangea É.Morren | Ann. Bot. Hort. 27: 59 (1877) |
| Schlumbergeria É.Morren | Ann. Bot. Hort. 28: 311 (1878) |
| Sodiroa Andrews | Bull. Soc. Bot. France 24: 167 (1877) |
| Thecophyllum André | Bromel. Andr.: 107 (1889) |

## Distribution

WCVP records the genus as native to 32 TDWG botanical regions and introduced in 1 more.

BahamasBelizeBoliviaBrazil NorthBrazil NortheastBrazil West-CentralCentral American Pacific Is.ColombiaCosta RicaCubaDominican RepublicEcuadorFloridaFrench GuianaGuatemalaGuyanaHaitiHondurasJamaicaLeeward Is.Mexico GulfMexico SoutheastMexico SouthwestNicaraguaPanamáPeruPuerto RicoSurinameTrinidad-TobagoVenezuelaVenezuelan AntillesWindward Is.

### Introduced

Bermuda

## Accepted species

The full list is on https://floreboard.com/en/plants/guzmania/#species.

## Historic plates

Plates in date order; the printed names are kept as they appear, current names are on the species pages and the topic page.

- [](https://floreboard.com/plants/plates/plantarum-icones-guzmania-lingulata.jpg)Tillandsia lingulataPlantarum indigenarum et exoticarum icones ad vivum coloratae · 1789,
- [](https://floreboard.com/plants/plates/exotic-flora-163x.jpg)Gusmannia tricolorExotic Flora · 163* · 1827,
- [](https://floreboard.com/plants/plates/bm-5220.jpg)Guzmannia tricolorCurtis's Botanical Magazine · 5220 · 1860, Walter Hood Fitch

## Care and safety

University of Florida IFAS warns that some mosquitoes breed in bromeliad cups; flushing them regularly with fresh water keeps them free of larvae, or Bti (Bacillus thuringiensis israelensis) products can be sprinkled in the cups.

The ASPCA has no entry for Guzmania itself; it lists the related blushing bromeliads, Neoregelia, as non-toxic to dogs and cats.

## Further reading

- [Reference library](https://floreboard.com/en/library/)

## References

- [WCVP · World Checklist of Vascular Plants (via ChecklistBank dataset 2232)](https://www.checklistbank.org/dataset/2232) · accessed 2026-10-28
- [Kew (POWO data on the ColPlanta site) · Guzmania native range](https://colplanta.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:326846-2/general-information)
- [Kew (POWO data on the ColPlanta site) · Guzmania lingulata native range and life form](https://colplanta.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:115161-2/general-information)
- [University of Florida IFAS Gardening Solutions · Bromeliads](https://gardeningsolutions.ifas.ufl.edu/plants/ornamentals/bromeliads/)
- [ASPCA Animal Poison Control · Blushing Bromeliad (Neoregelia)](https://www.aspca.org/pet-care/aspca-poison-control/toxic-and-non-toxic-plants/blushing-bromeliad)

Names, places of publication, synonyms and distribution checked against WCVP (2026-10-28); the text follows the cited sources and awaits specialist review.


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<!-- https://floreboard.com/en/plants/cyclamen/ -->

Curtis's Botanical Magazine · 44 · 1788 · public domain

# Cyclamen L.

cyclamens · Primulaceae

- **Accepted name:** Cyclamen L.
- **First published:** Sp. Pl.: 145 (1753)
- **Family:** Primulaceae
- **Accepted species:** 31 (including 6 natural hybrids)
- **Native range:** 34 TDWG regions, Europe to Iran and north-eastern Somalia
- **Common names:** cyclamens
- **Databases:** [POWO](https://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:32774-1) · [IPNI](https://www.ipni.org/n/32774-1) · [WCVP](https://www.checklistbank.org/dataset/2232/taxon/2749686) · [Catalogue of Life](https://www.catalogueoflife.org/data/taxon/3XTP) · [GBIF](https://www.gbif.org/species/3169314)

## Overview

Cyclamen belongs to the family Primulaceae; Kew gives its native range as Europe to Iran and north-eastern Somalia, and the species WCVP accepts, six of them natural hybrids, are listed below.

The florist’s cyclamen sold in winter and spring is C. persicum, which Kew records as a tuberous geophyte native from Algeria to the eastern Mediterranean, growing chiefly in the subtropical biome. University of Maryland Extension explains its habit: from the Mediterranean region, it flowers in the cool seasons and rests through dry, sweltering summers.

## Classification and characters

WCVP cites Linnaeus’s Species Plantarum (1753) as the place of publication; Cyclaminus, Cyclaminum and Cyclaminos are later spellings treated as synonyms.

The RHS describes the tuber as a storage organ that carries the plant through dormancy, and divides garden cyclamen into fully hardy species for growing outdoors and borderline-hardy ones for a cool greenhouse; the hardy species mostly flower in autumn and winter. The florist’s cyclamen, C. persicum, is not hardy and is grown as an indoor pot plant.

| Genus name | Published in |
| --- | --- |
| Cyclaminos Heldr. | Bull. Herb. Boissier 6: 386 (1898) |
| Cyclaminum Bubani | Fl. Pyren. 1: 229 (1897) |
| Cyclaminus Haller | Hist. Stirp. Helv. 1: 281 (1768) |

## Distribution

WCVP records the genus as native to 34 TDWG botanical regions and introduced in 6 more.

AlbaniaAlgeriaAustriaBalearesBulgariaCorseCyprusCzechia-SlovakiaEast Aegean Is.FranceGermanyGreeceHungaryIranItalyKritiKrymLebanon-SyriaLibyaMoroccoNorth CaucasusNW. Balkan Pen.PalestinePolandSardegnaSiciliaSomaliaSouth European RussiaSpainSwitzerlandTranscaucasusTunisiaTürkiyeTürkiye-in-Europe

### Introduced

BelgiumGreat BritainIrelandOregonRomaniaUkraine

## Accepted species

The full list is on https://floreboard.com/en/plants/cyclamen/#species.

## Historic plates

Plates in date order; the printed names are kept as they appear, current names are on the species pages and the topic page.

- [](https://floreboard.com/plants/plates/bot-mag-1-4.jpg)Cyclamen coumCurtis's Botanical Magazine · 4 · 1787,
- [](https://floreboard.com/plants/plates/bm-44.jpg)Cyclamen persicumCurtis's Botanical Magazine · 44 · 1788,
- [](https://floreboard.com/plants/plates/bot-register-56.jpg)Cyclamen littoraleEdwards's Botanical Register · 56 · 1846, Sarah Anne Drake, G. Barclay
- [](https://floreboard.com/plants/plates/favourite-flowers-cyclamen-persicum.jpg)Cyclamen persicumFavourite Flowers of Garden and Greenhouse · Pl. 176 · 1897,

## Pot-plant care and safety

University of Maryland Extension advises daytime highs around 20 °C (68 °F) and nights of 10–15 °C (the fifties °F); warmer conditions shorten flowering and push the plant into dormancy. Give bright, indirect light; an east window works well. Water from the side of the pot to avoid the growing point on top of the tuber, keeping the soil damp but never soggy and watering once the surface is dry, before the plant wilts. After flowering, reduce watering and let the leaves die back, give no water for 6–8 weeks while keeping the plant cool, then resume light watering around midsummer. Getting it to flower a second time is not easy and depends on this rest.

The ASPCA lists cyclamen as toxic to dogs, cats and horses: the toxic principles are terpenoid saponins, causing salivation, vomiting and diarrhoea, and after large ingestions of tubers heart-rhythm abnormalities, seizures and death.

## Further reading

- [Reference library](https://floreboard.com/en/library/)

## References

- [WCVP · World Checklist of Vascular Plants (via ChecklistBank dataset 2232)](https://www.checklistbank.org/dataset/2232) · accessed 2026-10-28
- [Kew (POWO data on the ColPlanta site) · Cyclamen native range](https://colplanta.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:32774-1/general-information)
- [Kew (POWO data on the ColPlanta site) · Cyclamen persicum native range and life form](https://colplanta.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:700765-1/general-information)
- [University of Maryland Extension, Maryland Grows · caring for a gift cyclamen](https://marylandgrows.umd.edu/2017/12/25/qa-how-do-i-care-for-a-cyclamen-plant-i-received-as-a-gift/)
- [RHS · Cyclamen growing guide (hardy species)](https://www.rhs.org.uk/plants/cyclamen/growing-guide)
- [ASPCA Animal Poison Control · Cyclamen](https://www.aspca.org/pet-care/aspca-poison-control/toxic-and-non-toxic-plants/cyclamen)

Names, places of publication, synonyms and distribution checked against WCVP (2026-10-28); the text follows the cited sources and awaits specialist review.


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<!-- https://floreboard.com/en/plants/kalanchoe/ -->

Curtis's Botanical Magazine · 5147 · 1859 · Walter Hood Fitch · public domain

# Kalanchoe Adans.

kalanchoes · Crassulaceae

- **Accepted name:** Kalanchoe Adans.
- **First published:** Fam. Pl. 2: 248 (1763)
- **Family:** Crassulaceae
- **Accepted species:** 203 (including 25 natural hybrids)
- **Native range:** 71 TDWG regions, the Old World tropics and subtropics
- **Common names:** kalanchoes
- **Databases:** [POWO](https://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:30060186-2) · [IPNI](https://www.ipni.org/n/30060186-2) · [WCVP](https://www.checklistbank.org/dataset/2232/taxon/2333872) · [Catalogue of Life](https://www.catalogueoflife.org/data/taxon/577G) · [GBIF](https://www.gbif.org/species/2985928)

## Overview

Kalanchoe belongs to the family Crassulaceae. Kew gives its native range as the Old World tropics and subtropics; Flora of China counts about 125 species in Africa and Asia, four of them in China (two endemic). With Bryophyllum and others included, WCVP accepts more, listed below.

The pot plant flaming Katy is K. blossfeldiana, which Kew records as a succulent subshrub native to north-eastern Madagascar, growing chiefly in the seasonally dry tropics. Clemson Extension notes that it was introduced in 1932 by the German hybridiser Robert Blossfeld; its small, four-petalled flowers are clustered above the leaves, double varieties have up to 26 petals per flower, and colours include red, magenta, pink, orange, yellow and white.

## Classification and characters

WCVP cites Adanson’s Familles des Plantes (1763) as the place of publication and sinks Bryophyllum, Kitchingia and others as synonyms, so the plants once called Bryophyllum are now species of Kalanchoe.

Flora of China describes herbs (sometimes biennial), subshrubs or shrubs with opposite, often clasping leaves that are entire, toothed, crenate or pinnate. The terminal cymes are many-flowered; the flowers are bisexual, erect and four-parted, with a salverform corolla that is yellow (or white, red, pink or orange) and lobes longer than the tube; there are twice as many stamens as petals, and the fruit is a many-seeded follicle.

| Genus name | Published in |
| --- | --- |
| Baumgartenia Tratt. | Auswahl Gartenpflanzen: 110 (1821) |
| Bryophyllum Salisb. | Parad. Lond. 1: t. 3 (1805) |
| Crassuvia Comm. ex Lam. | Encycl. 2: 141 (1786) |
| Geaya Costantin & Poiss. | Compt. Rend. Hebd. Séances Acad. Sci. 147: 636 (1908) |
| Kitchingia Baker | J. Linn. Soc., Bot. 18: 268 (1881) |
| Meristostylus Klotzsch | W.C.H.Peters, Naturw. Reise Mossambique 6(Bot., 1): 267 (1861) |
| Physocalycium Vest | Flora 3: 409 (1820) |
| Vereia Andrews | Bot. Repos. 1: t. 21 (1798) |

## Distribution

WCVP records the genus as native to 71 TDWG botanical regions and introduced in 111 more.

Native regions (71)

AngolaAssamBangladeshBeninBotswanaBurkinaBurundiCambodiaCameroonCape ProvincesCaprivi StripCentral African RepublicChadChina South-CentralChina SoutheastComorosCongoCook Is.DjiboutiDR CongoEast HimalayaEritreaEswatiniEthiopiaFree StateGabonGambiaGhanaGuineaGuinea-BissauGulf of Guinea Is.IndiaIvory CoastJawaKenyaKwaZulu-NatalLaosLesothoLesser Sunda Is.MadagascarMalawiMaliMoroccoMozambiqueMyanmarNamibiaNansei-shotoNepalNigerNigeriaNorthern ProvincesOmanPhilippinesRwandaSaudi ArabiaSierra LeoneSocotraSomaliaSri LankaSudan-South SudanSulawesiTaiwanTanzaniaThailandTibetUgandaVietnamWest HimalayaYemenZambiaZimbabwe

### Introduced

Introduced regions (111)

AlabamaAlgeriaAndaman Is.Argentina NortheastArgentina NorthwestArizonaAscensionAzoresBahamasBalearesBelizeBermudaBoliviaBorneoBrazil NorthBrazil NortheastBrazil SouthBrazil SoutheastBrazil West-CentralCaliforniaCanary Is.Cape VerdeCaroline Is.Cayman Is.Chagos ArchipelagoCocos (Keeling) Is.ColombiaCorseCosta RicaCubaDominican RepublicEcuadorEl SalvadorFijiFloridaGalápagosGilbert Is.GreeceGuatemalaHaitiHawaiiHondurasIraqItalyJamaicaJapanKermadec Is.Leeward Is.LiberiaLine Is.MadeiraMalayaMaldivesMalukuMarcus I.MarianasMarquesasMarshall Is.MauritiusMexico CentralMexico GulfMexico NortheastMexico NorthwestMexico SoutheastMexico SouthwestNauruNetherlands AntillesNew CaledoniaNew GuineaNew South WalesNew Zealand NorthNicaraguaNiueNorfolk Is.Ogasawara-shotoPakistanParaguayPeruPortugalPuerto RicoQueenslandRéunionRodriguesSamoaSardegnaSenegalSeychellesSiciliaSociety Is.Solomon Is.South AustraliaSouthwest CaribbeanSpainSt.HelenaSumateraTexasTokelau-ManihikiTongaTrinidad-TobagoTuamotuTubuai Is.TunisiaTürkiyeTurks-Caicos Is.TuvaluVanuatuVenezuelaVictoriaWake I.Western AustraliaWindward Is.

## Accepted species

The full list is on https://floreboard.com/en/plants/kalanchoe/#species.

## Historic plates

Plates in date order; the printed names are kept as they appear, current names are on the species pages and the topic page.

- [](https://floreboard.com/plants/plates/paradisus-londinensis-kalanchoe-pinnata.jpg)Bryophyllum calycinumThe Paradisus Londinensis · Tab. 3 · 1805,
- [](https://floreboard.com/plants/plates/bot-mag-1436.jpg)Cotyledon crenataCurtis's Botanical Magazine · 1436 · 1812, Sydenham Edwards, F. Sansom
- [](https://floreboard.com/plants/plates/bm-5147.jpg)Bryophyllum proliferumCurtis's Botanical Magazine · 5147 · 1859, Walter Hood Fitch

## Pot-plant care and safety

Clemson Extension advises full sun and a well-drained potting mix, as plants get spindly in dim light; nights of 7–18 °C (45–65 °F) and days of 10–21 °C (50–70 °F) are ideal, with cooler nights making the flowers last longer; overwatering is harmful, so let the soil dry slightly between waterings. Like poinsettias, kalanchoes need short days (long nights) to set buds: natural winter nights of 14–16 hours, roughly from 1 October to 1 March, bring buds after about six weeks, while temperatures above 27 °C (80 °F) during the long nights cause a “heat delay” that stops flower development.

The ASPCA lists kalanchoes as toxic to dogs and cats: the toxic principles are bufadienolides, causing vomiting, diarrhoea and, rarely, abnormal heart rhythm.

## Further reading

- [Reference library](https://floreboard.com/en/library/)

## References

- [WCVP · World Checklist of Vascular Plants (via ChecklistBank dataset 2232)](https://www.checklistbank.org/dataset/2232) · accessed 2026-10-28
- [Flora of China vol. 8 · Kalanchoe](http://www.efloras.org/florataxon.aspx?flora_id=2&taxon_id=116917)
- [Kew (POWO data on the ColPlanta site) · Kalanchoe blossfeldiana native range and life form](https://colplanta.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:274279-1/general-information)
- [Clemson Cooperative Extension Home & Garden Information Center · Kalanchoe](https://hgic.clemson.edu/factsheet/kalanchoe/)
- [ASPCA Animal Poison Control · Kalanchoe](https://www.aspca.org/pet-care/aspca-poison-control/toxic-and-non-toxic-plants/kalanchoe)

Names, places of publication, synonyms and distribution checked against WCVP (2026-10-28); the text follows the cited sources and awaits specialist review.


---

<!-- https://floreboard.com/en/plants/euphorbia/ -->

Flora de Filipinas, gran edición (Atlas) · 167 bis · 1880–1883 · C. Verdaguer · public domain

# Euphorbia L.

spurges · Euphorbiaceae

- **Accepted name:** Euphorbia L.
- **First published:** Sp. Pl.: 450 (1753)
- **Family:** Euphorbiaceae
- **Accepted species:** 2123 (including 46 natural hybrids)
- **Native range:** 331 TDWG regions, worldwide
- **Common names:** spurges
- **Databases:** [POWO](https://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:327729-2) · [IPNI](https://www.ipni.org/n/327729-2) · [WCVP](https://www.checklistbank.org/dataset/2232/taxon/78175) · [Catalogue of Life](https://www.catalogueoflife.org/data/taxon/8VRY5) · [GBIF](https://www.gbif.org/species/11397237)

## Overview

Euphorbia, of the family Euphorbiaceae, is one of the largest genera of flowering plants. Flora of China puts it at up to 2000 species worldwide, especially in the drier tropics and most diverse in Africa, with one major group centred in temperate regions; 77 species grow in China (11 endemic, nine introduced). The species WCVP accepts are listed below. Flora of China adds that many are grown as ornamentals — the succulents especially by specialist collectors — and that the poinsettia, E. pulcherrima, and crown of thorns, E. milii, are extremely important in the horticultural trade.

Kew records the poinsettia as a shrub native to Mexico and Guatemala, growing chiefly in the seasonally dry tropics. University of Florida IFAS notes that it reached the United States from Mexico around 1828, where it was called flor de nochebuena, “Christmas Eve flower”, and that its English name honours Joel Roberts Poinsett, the first US Minister to Mexico, who sent plants home.

## Classification and characters

WCVP cites Linnaeus’s Species Plantarum (1753) as the place of publication and sinks some 80 generic names as synonyms, among them Chamaesyce and Poinsettia, once set up for the poinsettia itself.

Flora of China describes herbs, shrubs or trees with abundant white (very rarely yellow) latex in all parts, the stems sometimes succulent. The inflorescence is a flower-like cyathium: a cup-shaped or tubular involucre holding several clusters of male flowers around one central female flower, each male flower reduced to a single stamen and the female to a single ovary, with glands on the involucre margin, sometimes bearing petal-like appendages. The capsule breaks into three cocci, usually explosively.

The poinsettia is a shrub or small tree 1–3(–4) m tall. Its crowded cyathia are subtended by 5–7 stalked, leaf-like bracts, narrowly elliptic, 3–7 cm long and scarlet; the involucre is pale green, usually with a single yellow gland. It flowers and fruits from October to April, is widely cultivated and occasionally naturalised in China, is native to Central America, and is grown worldwide on a massive scale as a pot plant (Flora of China). University of Florida IFAS likewise explains that the coloured parts are modified leaves, or bracts, that attract pollinators to the small, inconspicuous true flowers.

| Genus name | Published in |
| --- | --- |
| Adenopetalum Klotzsch & Garcke | Monatsber. Königl. Preuss. Akad. Wiss. Berlin 1859: 250 (1860) |
| Adenorima Raf. | Fl. Tellur. 4: 112 (1838) |
| Agaloma Raf. | Fl. Tellur. 4: 116 (1838) |
| Aklema Raf. | Fl. Tellur. 4: 114 (1838) |
| Alectoroctonum Schltdl. | Linnaea 19: 252 (1846) |
| Allobia Raf. | Fl. Tellur. 4: 116 (1838) |
| Anisophyllum Haw. | Syn. Pl. Succ.: 159 (1812) |
| Anthacantha Lem. | Ill. Hort. 5: 64 (1858) |
| Aplarina Raf. | New Fl. 4: 99 (1838) |
| Arthrothamnus Klotzsch & Garcke | Monatsber. Königl. Preuss. Akad. Wiss. Berlin 1859: 251 (1859) |
| Athymalus Neck. | Elem. Bot. 2: 353 (1790) |
| Chamaesyce Gray | Nat. Arr. Brit. Pl. 2: 260 (1821 publ. 1822) |
| Characias Gray | Nat. Arr. Brit. Pl. 2: 259 (1821 publ. 1822) |
| Chylogala Fourr. | Ann. Soc. Linn. Lyon, n.s., 17: 150 (1869) |
| Crepidaria Haw. | Syn. Pl. Succ.: 136 (1812) |
| Ctenadena Prokh. | Consp. Syst. Tithymalus As. Med.: 28 (1933) |
| Cubanthus Millsp. | Publ. Field Mus. Nat. Hist., Bot. Ser. 2: 371 (1913) |
| Cyathophora Raf. | Fl. Tellur. 4: 117 (1838) |
| Cystidospermum Prokh. | Consp. Syst. Tithymalus As. Med.: 13, 25 (1933) |
| Dactylanthes Haw. | Syn. Pl. Succ.: 132 (1812) |
| Dematra Raf. | Autik. Bot.: 96 (1840) |
| Desmonema Raf. | Atlantic J. 1: 177 (1833) |
| Diadenaria Klotzsch & Garcke | Monatsber. Königl. Preuss. Akad. Wiss. Berlin 1859: 254 (1859) |
| Dichylium Britton | Bot. Porto Rico 5: 499 (1924) |
| Diplocyathium Heinr.Schmidt | Beih. Bot. Centralbl., Abt. 1. 22: 40 (1907) |
| Ditritra Raf. | Sylva Tellur.: 115 (1838) |
| Elaeophorbia Stapf | H.H.Johnston, Liberia 2: 646 (1906) |
| Endadenium L.C.Leach | Garcia de Orta, Sér. Bot. 1: 31 (1973) |
| Endoisila Raf. | Sylva Tellur.: 114 (1838) |
| Epurga Fourr. | Ann. Soc. Linn. Lyon, n.s., 17: 150 (1869) |
| Esula (Pers.) Haw. | Syn. Pl. Succ.: 153 (1812) |
| Esula Morandi | Hist. Bot. Pract., ed. 2.: 72 (1761) |
| Eumecanthus Klotzsch & Garcke | Monatsber. Königl. Preuss. Akad. Wiss. Berlin 1859: 248 (1859) |
| Euphorbiastrum Klotzsch & Garcke | Abh. Königl. Akad. Wiss. Berlin 1859: 252 (1860) |
| Euphorbiodendron Millsp. | Publ. Field Columb. Mus., Bot. Ser. 2: 305 (1909) |
| Euphorbion St.-Lag. | Ann. Soc. Bot. Lyon 7: 125 (1880) |
| Euphorbium Hill | Brit. Herb.: 157 (1756) |
| Galarhoeus Haw. | Syn. Pl. Succ.: 143 (1812) |
| Galorhoeus Endl. | Gen. Pl. Secund. Ord. Nat.: 1108 (1840) |
| Hexadenia Klotzsch & Garcke | Monatsber. Königl. Preuss. Akad. Wiss. Berlin 1859: 253 (1859) |
| Kanopikon Raf. | Fl. Tellur. 4: 114 (1838) |
| Keraselma Neck. ex Juss. | G.-F.Cuvier, Dict. Sci. Nat., ed. 2. 24: 387 (1822) |
| Kobiosis Raf. | Autik. Bot.: 94 (1840) |
| Lacanthis Raf. | Fl. Tellur. 2: 94 (1837) |
| Lepadena Raf. | Fl. Tellur. 4: 113 (1838) |
| Leptopus Klotzsch & Garcke | Monatsber. Königl. Preuss. Akad. Wiss. Berlin 1859: 249 (1859) |
| Lophobios Raf. | Fl. Tellur. 4: 116 (1838) |
| Lortia Rendle | J. Bot. 36: 29 (1898) |
| Lyciopsis (Boiss.) Schweinf. | Beitr. Fl. Aethiop.: 37 (1867) |
| Medusea Haw. | Syn. Pl. Succ.: 133 (1812) |
| Monadenium Pax | Bot. Jahrb. Syst. 19: 126 (1894) |
| Murtekias Raf. | Fl. Tellur. 4: 116 (1838) |
| Nisomenes Raf. | Fl. Tellur. 4: 116 (1838) |
| Peccana Raf. | Sylva Tellur.: 114 (1838) |
| Pedilanthus Neck. ex Poit. | Ann. Mus. Natl. Hist. Nat. 19: 388 (1812) |
| Petaloma Raf. ex Boiss. | A.P.de Candolle, Prodr. 15(2): 63 (1862) |
| Pleuradena Raf. | Atlantic J. 1: 182 (1833) |
| Poinsettia Graham | Edinburgh New Philos. J. 20: 412 (1836) |
| Pyretrum Burm. | C.Plumier, Pl. Amer.: 230 (1760) |
| Pythius Raf. | Fl. Tellur. 4: 116 (1838) |
| Sclerocyathium Prokh. | Trans. Rubber Guttap. Inst. U.S.S.R.: 14, 30 (1933) |
| Stenadenium Pax | Bot. Jahrb. Syst. 30: 343 (1901) |
| Sterigmanthe Klotzsch & Garcke | Monatsber. Königl. Preuss. Akad. Wiss. Berlin 1859: 252 (1859) |
| Synadenium Boiss. | A.P.de Candolle, Prodr. 15(2): 187 (1862) |
| Tirucalia Raf. | Fl. Tellur. 4: 112 (1838) |
| Tithymalodes Ludw. ex Kuntze | Revis. Gen. Pl. 2: 620 (1891) |
| Tithymaloides Ortega | Tabl. Bot.: 9 (1773) |
| Tithymalopsis Klotzsch & Garcke | Monatsber. Königl. Preuss. Akad. Wiss. Berlin 1859: 249 (1859) |
| Tithymalus Gaertn. | Fruct. Sem. Pl. 2: 115 (1790) |
| Tithymalus Mill. | Gard. Dict. Abr., ed. 4.: [s.p.] (1754) |
| Tithymalus Ség. | Pl. Veron. 3: 91 (1754) |
| Torfasadis Raf. | Fl. Tellur. 4: 112 (1838) |
| Treisia Haw. | Syn. Pl. Succ.: 131 (1812) |
| Trichosterigma Klotzsch & Garcke | Monatsber. Königl. Preuss. Akad. Wiss. Berlin 1859: 248 (1859) |
| Tumalis Raf. | Fl. Tellur. 4: 114 (1838) |
| Vallaris Raf. | Fl. Tellur. 4: 114 (1838) |
| Ventenatia Tratt. | Gen. Pl.: 86 (1802) |
| Xamesike Raf. | Fl. Tellur. 4: 115 (1838) |
| Zalitea Raf. | New Fl. 4: 98 (1838) |
| Zygophyllidium Small | Fl. S.E. U.S.: 714 (1903) |

## Distribution

WCVP records the genus as native to 331 TDWG botanical regions and introduced in 17 more.

Native regions (331)

AfghanistanAlabamaAlbaniaAlbertaAldabraAlgeriaAltayAmurAndaman Is.AngolaArgentina NortheastArgentina NorthwestArgentina SouthArizonaArkansasArubaAscensionAssamAustriaAzoresBahamasBalearesBaltic StatesBangladeshBelarusBelgiumBelizeBeninBermudaBismarck ArchipelagoBoliviaBorneoBotswanaBrazil NorthBrazil NortheastBrazil SouthBrazil SoutheastBrazil West-CentralBritish ColumbiaBulgariaBurkinaBurundiBuryatiyaCaliforniaCambodiaCameroonCanary Is.Cape ProvincesCape VerdeCaprivi StripCaroline Is.Cayman Is.Central African RepublicCentral American Pacific Is.Central European RussiaChadChagos ArchipelagoChatham Is.Chile CentralChile NorthChile SouthChina North-CentralChina South-CentralChina SoutheastChitaChristmas I.Cocos (Keeling) Is.ColombiaColoradoComorosCongoConnecticutCook Is.CorseCosta RicaCubaCyprusCzechia-SlovakiaDelawareDenmarkDistrict of ColumbiaDjiboutiDominican RepublicDR CongoEast Aegean Is.East European RussiaEast HimalayaEaster Is.EcuadorEgyptEl SalvadorEritreaEswatiniEthiopiaFijiFinlandFloridaFøroyarFranceFree StateFrench GuianaGabonGalápagosGambiaGeorgiaGermanyGhanaGilbert Is.Great BritainGreeceGuatemalaGuineaGuinea-BissauGulf of Guinea Is.Gulf StatesGuyanaHainanHaitiHawaiiHondurasHungaryIcelandIdahoIllinoisIndiaIndianaInner MongoliaIowaIranIraqIrelandIrkutskItalyIvory CoastJamaicaJapanJawaKamchatkaKansasKazakhstanKentuckyKenyaKhabarovskKirgizstanKoreaKrasnoyarskKritiKrymKuril Is.KuwaitKwaZulu-NatalLaccadive Is.LaosLebanon-SyriaLeeward Is.LesothoLesser Sunda Is.LiberiaLibyaLouisianaMadagascarMadeiraMaineMalawiMalayaMaldivesMaliManchuriaManitobaMarianasMarquesasMarshall Is.MarylandMassachusettsMauritaniaMauritiusMexican Pacific Is.Mexico CentralMexico GulfMexico NortheastMexico NorthwestMexico SoutheastMexico SouthwestMichiganMinnesotaMississippiMissouriMongoliaMontanaMoroccoMozambiqueMozambique Channel Is.MyanmarNamibiaNansei-shotoNauruNebraskaNepalNetherlandsNetherlands AntillesNevadaNew BrunswickNew CaledoniaNew GuineaNew HampshireNew JerseyNew MexicoNew South WalesNew YorkNew Zealand NorthNew Zealand SouthNicaraguaNicobar Is.NigerNigeriaNiueNorfolk Is.North CarolinaNorth CaucasusNorth DakotaNorth European RussiaNorthern ProvincesNorthern TerritoryNorthwest European RussiaNorwayNova ScotiaNW. Balkan Pen.OhioOklahomaOmanOntarioOregonPakistanPalestinePanamáParaguayPennsylvaniaPeruPhilippinesPitcairn Is.PolandPortugalPrimoryePrince Edward I.Puerto RicoQinghaiQuébecQueenslandRéunionRhode I.RodriguesRomaniaRwandaSakhalinSamoaSardegnaSaskatchewanSaudi ArabiaSelvagensSenegalSeychellesSiciliaSierra LeoneSinaiSociety Is.SocotraSolomon Is.SomaliaSouth AustraliaSouth CarolinaSouth China SeaSouth DakotaSouth European RussiaSouthwest CaribbeanSpainSri LankaSt.HelenaSudan-South SudanSulawesiSumateraSurinameSwedenSwitzerlandTadzhikistanTaiwanTanzaniaTennesseeTexasThailandTibetTogoTokelau-ManihikiTongaTranscaucasusTrinidad-TobagoTuamotuTubuai Is.TunisiaTürkiyeTürkiye-in-EuropeTurkmenistanTurks-Caicos Is.TuvaTuvaluUgandaUkraineUruguayUtahUzbekistanVanuatuVenezuelaVenezuelan AntillesVermontVictoriaVietnamVirginiaWallis-Futuna Is.WashingtonWest HimalayaWest SiberiaWest VirginiaWestern AustraliaWestern SaharaWindward Is.WisconsinWyomingXinjiangYakutiyaYemenZambiaZimbabwe

### Introduced

AlaskaFalkland Is.Howland-Baker Is.Juan Fernández Is.Kazan-rettoKermadec Is.Line Is.MagadanMalukuMarcus I.NewfoundlandOgasawara-shotoPhoenix Is.TasmaniaTristan da CunhaWake I.Yukon

## Accepted species

The full list is on https://floreboard.com/en/plants/euphorbia/#species.

## Historic plates

Plates in date order; the printed names are kept as they appear, current names are on the species pages and the topic page.

- [](https://floreboard.com/plants/plates/fragmenta-botanica-101.jpg)Euphorbia bupleurifoliaFragmenta Botanica, figuris coloratis illustrata · 101 · 1800,
- [](https://floreboard.com/plants/plates/fragmenta-botanica-120.jpg)Euphorbia OrnithopusFragmenta Botanica, figuris coloratis illustrata · 120 · 1800,
- [](https://floreboard.com/plants/plates/american-flora-4-32.jpg)Euphorbia atro-purpureaThe American Flora · 32 · 1855,
- [](https://floreboard.com/plants/plates/flora-filipinas-167bis.jpg)Euphorbia pulcherrima, Euphorbia splendlensFlora de Filipinas, gran edición (Atlas) · 167 bis · 1880–1883, C. Verdaguer
- [](https://floreboard.com/plants/plates/thome-flora-333.jpg)Euphorbia helioscopia, Euphorbia esulaFlora von Deutschland, Österreich und der Schweiz · 333 · 1888, Walther Müller

## Colouring and safety

University of Florida IFAS: poinsettias set flower buds in winter, when nights are longer than days, and uninterrupted darkness, not day length, is what matters. Most varieties begin after 11 hours 45 minutes of darkness a night, and initiation is fastest at 14–14.5 hours; temperatures above 26 °C (79 °F) or exposure to outdoor lights delay flowering. Commercial growers cover the benches with light-excluding fabric each afternoon and keep greenhouses at 17–20 °C (62–68 °F) to time sales for Thanksgiving.

On toxicity, IFAS says the poinsettia’s reputation is overstated: the latex irritates skin, eyes and mucous membranes and may upset the stomach if swallowed, but it is one of the less toxic euphorbias, and Toxic Plants of North America, which it cites, records no deaths among 22,793 reported human exposures. The ASPCA lists the poinsettia as toxic to dogs, cats and horses, its irritant sap affecting the mouth and stomach and sometimes causing vomiting, but calls it “generally over-rated in toxicity”.

## Further reading

- [Reference library](https://floreboard.com/en/library/)

## References

- [WCVP · World Checklist of Vascular Plants (via ChecklistBank dataset 2232)](https://www.checklistbank.org/dataset/2232) · accessed 2026-10-28
- [Flora of China vol. 11 · Euphorbia](http://www.efloras.org/florataxon.aspx?flora_id=2&taxon_id=112355)
- [Kew (POWO data on the ColPlanta site) · Euphorbia pulcherrima native range and life form](https://colplanta.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:30176564-2/general-information)
- [University of Florida IFAS Gardening Solutions · Five facts about the poinsettia](https://gardeningsolutions.ifas.ufl.edu/plants/ornamentals/five-facts-about-poinsettia/)
- [Flora of China vol. 11 · Euphorbia pulcherrima](http://www.efloras.org/florataxon.aspx?flora_id=2&taxon_id=200012573)
- [ASPCA Animal Poison Control · Poinsettia](https://www.aspca.org/pet-care/aspca-poison-control/toxic-and-non-toxic-plants/poinsettia)

Names, places of publication, synonyms and distribution checked against WCVP (2026-10-28); the text follows the cited sources and awaits specialist review.


---

<!-- https://floreboard.com/en/plants/ficus/ -->

Favourite Flowers of Garden and Greenhouse · Pl. 234 · 1897 · public domain

# Ficus Tourn. ex L.

figs · Moraceae

- **Accepted name:** Ficus Tourn. ex L.
- **First published:** Sp. Pl.: 1059 (1753)
- **Family:** Moraceae
- **Accepted species:** 893 (including 0 natural hybrids)
- **Native range:** 196 TDWG regions, the tropics and subtropics
- **Common names:** figs
- **Databases:** [POWO](https://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:327905-2) · [IPNI](https://www.ipni.org/n/327905-2) · [WCVP](https://www.checklistbank.org/dataset/2232/taxon/2809363) · [Catalogue of Life](https://www.catalogueoflife.org/data/taxon/4JYX) · [GBIF](https://www.gbif.org/species/2984588)

## Overview

Ficus belongs to the family Moraceae. Flora of China counts about 1000 species, mainly in the tropics and subtropics and especially diverse in South-East Asia, 99 of them in China (16 endemic, two introduced); the species WCVP accepts are listed below. Flora of China adds that many are grown as ornamentals in the tropics and subtropics and as houseplants elsewhere, and a few, notably the common fig, F. carica, as fruit trees.

The common plant-shop species: the rubber plant, F. elastica, native from western Yunnan to India, Malaysia and Indonesia, is grown as a houseplant around the world and was formerly a source of rubber in China (Flora of China); the fiddle-leaf fig, F. lyrata, is a hemiepiphytic tree of western and west-central tropical Africa (Kew); the weeping fig, F. benjamina, is native to tropical and subtropical Asia and northern Australia (Kew); and the Chinese banyan, F. microcarpa, commonly planted as a shade tree in southern China, grows rust-coloured aerial roots on older branches (Flora of China).

## Classification and characters

WCVP cites Linnaeus’s Species Plantarum (1753) as the place of publication and sinks more than twenty generic names, such as Covellia and Galoglychia, as synonyms.

Flora of China describes trees, shrubs, climbers, stranglers or woody epiphytes, evergreen or deciduous, with latex. The stipules are often joined and enclose the terminal bud, leaving a ring-like scar when they fall, and the leaves usually bear waxy glands at the base beneath. The inflorescence is a fig (syconium): many minute flowers lining the inside of a hollow receptacle that opens to the outside only through a pore at the top. Ficus is immediately recognisable by this “fig”.

A fig holds male, gall and female flowers; gall flowers are sterile females, usually occupied by a fig wasp. Flora of China explains that fig wasps (Hymenoptera, Agaonidae) are very specialised symbiotic pollinators whose life cycles are tied to the flowering and fruiting of the figs; wasp taxonomy closely parallels that of Ficus, most wasp genera being restricted to particular subgenera, sections or subsections. The larvae feed on short-styled female flowers or, in the male figs of dioecious species, on the gall flowers.

In the rubber plant the stipules are dark red and about 10 cm long, wrapping each new leaf, and the thickly leathery blades are 8–30 cm long (Flora of China).

| Genus name | Published in |
| --- | --- |
| Boscheria Carruth. | Rev. Hort. (Paris) 44: 199 (1872) |
| Bosscheria de Vriese & Teijsm. | Natuurk. Tijdschr. Ned.-Indië 23: 213 (1861) |
| Caprificus Gasp. | Nov. Gen. Fic.: 6 (1844) |
| Covellia Gasp. | Nov. Gen. Fic.: 10 (1844) |
| Cystogyne Gasp. | Ric. Caprifico: 84 (1845) |
| Dammaropsis Warb. | Bot. Jahrb. Syst. 13: 296 (1891) |
| Erosma Booth | Nursery Cat. (Booth): 113 (1847) |
| Erythrogyne Vis. | G.Gasparrini, Ric. Caprifico: 86 (1845) |
| Galoglychia Gasp. | Nov. Gen. Fic.: 10 (1844) |
| Gonosuke Raf. | Sylva Tellur.: 58 (1838) |
| Macrophthalma Gasp. | Ric. Caprifico: 83 (1845) |
| Mastosuke Raf. | Sylva Tellur.: 59 (1838) |
| Necalistis Raf. | Sylva Tellur.: 58 (1838) |
| Oluntos Raf. | Sylva Tellur.: 58 (1838) |
| Perula Raf. | Sylva Tellur.: 58 (1838) |
| Pharmacosycea Miq. | London J. Bot. 7: 64 (1848) |
| Plagiostigma Zucc. | Abh. Math.-Phys. Cl. Königl. Bayer. Akad. Wiss. 4(3): 154 (1846) |
| Pogonotrophe Miq. | London J. Bot. 6: 525 (1847) |
| Rephesis Raf. | Sylva Tellur.: 59 (1838) |
| Stilpnophyllum (Endl.) Drury | Handb. Ind. Fl. 3: 225 (1869) |
| Sycomorphe Miq. | Ann. Sci. Nat., Bot., sér. 3, 1: 35 (1844) |
| Sycomorus Gasp. | Ric. Caprifico: 86 (1845) |
| Synoecia Miq. | London J. Bot. 7: 469 (1848) |
| Tenorea Gasp. | Nov. Gen. Fic.: 6 (1844) |
| Tremotis Raf. | Sylva Tellur.: 59 (1838) |
| Urostigma Gasp. | Nov. Gen. Fic.: 7 (1844) |
| Varinga Raf. | Sylva Tellur.: 58 (1838) |
| Visiania Gasp. | Nov. Gen. Fic.: 9 (1844) |

## Distribution

WCVP records the genus as native to 196 TDWG botanical regions and introduced in 52 more.

Native regions (196)

AfghanistanAldabraAlgeriaAndaman Is.AngolaArgentina NortheastArgentina NorthwestArubaAssamBahamasBangladeshBelizeBeninBermudaBismarck ArchipelagoBoliviaBorneoBotswanaBrazil NorthBrazil NortheastBrazil SouthBrazil SoutheastBrazil West-CentralBurkinaBurundiCabindaCambodiaCameroonCape ProvincesCape VerdeCaprivi StripCaroline Is.Cayman Is.Central African RepublicCentral American Pacific Is.ChadChina North-CentralChina South-CentralChina SoutheastChristmas I.Cocos (Keeling) Is.ColombiaComorosCongoCook Is.Costa RicaCubaCyprusDjiboutiDominican RepublicDR CongoEast HimalayaEcuadorEgyptEl SalvadorEquatorial GuineaEritreaEswatiniEthiopiaFijiFloridaFrench GuianaGabonGambiaGhanaGilbert Is.GreeceGuatemalaGuineaGuinea-BissauGulf of Guinea Is.Gulf StatesGuyanaHainanHaitiHondurasIndiaIranIraqIvory CoastJamaicaJapanJawaKazan-rettoKenyaKoreaKritiKwaZulu-NatalLaccadive Is.LaosLebanon-SyriaLeeward Is.Lesser Sunda Is.LiberiaLibyaLine Is.MadagascarMalawiMalayaMaldivesMaliMalukuMarianasMarquesasMarshall Is.MauritaniaMauritiusMexican Pacific Is.Mexico CentralMexico GulfMexico NortheastMexico NorthwestMexico SoutheastMexico SouthwestMozambiqueMyanmarNamibiaNansei-shotoNauruNepalNetherlands AntillesNew CaledoniaNew GuineaNew South WalesNicaraguaNicobar Is.NigerNigeriaNiueNorfolk Is.North CaucasusNorthern ProvincesNorthern TerritoryOgasawara-shotoOmanPakistanPalestinePanamáParaguayPeruPhilippinesPitcairn Is.Puerto RicoQueenslandRéunionRodriguesRwandaSamoaSanta Cruz Is.Saudi ArabiaSenegalSeychellesSierra LeoneSinaiSociety Is.SocotraSolomon Is.SomaliaSouth AustraliaSouth China SeaSouthwest CaribbeanSri LankaSudan-South SudanSulawesiSumateraSurinameTadzhikistanTaiwanTanzaniaThailandTibetTogoTokelau-ManihikiTongaTranscaucasusTrinidad-TobagoTuamotuTubuai Is.TürkiyeTurkmenistanTurks-Caicos Is.TuvaluUgandaUruguayVanuatuVenezuelaVenezuelan AntillesVictoriaVietnamWallis-Futuna Is.West HimalayaWestern AustraliaWindward Is.YemenZambiaZimbabwe

### Introduced

Introduced regions (52)

AlabamaAlbaniaArkansasAscensionAustriaAzoresBalearesBulgariaCaliforniaCanary Is.Chagos ArchipelagoCorseCzechia-SlovakiaDenmarkEast Aegean Is.Easter Is.FranceGalápagosGermanyGreat BritainHawaiiHungaryIrelandItalyJuan Fernández Is.KrymMadeiraMarylandMassachusettsMoroccoNew MexicoNew YorkNew Zealand NorthNew Zealand SouthNorth CarolinaNW. Balkan Pen.PolandPortugalSardegnaSiciliaSouth CarolinaSpainSt.HelenaSwedenSwitzerlandTristan da CunhaTunisiaTürkiye-in-EuropeUzbekistanWake I.Western SaharaXinjiang

## Accepted species

The full list is on https://floreboard.com/en/plants/ficus/#species.

## Historic plates

Plates in date order; the printed names are kept as they appear, current names are on the species pages and the topic page.

- [](https://floreboard.com/plants/plates/botanical-cabinet-1697.jpg)Ficus urophyllaThe Botanical Cabinet · 1697 · 1831, George Loddiges
- [](https://floreboard.com/plants/plates/belgique-horticole-ficus-carica.jpg)Figuier de BrunswickLa Belgique horticole · 1852, C. Severeyns
- [](https://floreboard.com/plants/plates/tuinbouw-flora-8.jpg)Ficus elasticaTuinbouw-flora van Nederland en zijne overzeesche bezittingen · 8 · 1855,
- [](https://floreboard.com/plants/plates/favourite-flowers-234.jpg)Ficus elasticaFavourite Flowers of Garden and Greenhouse · Pl. 234 · 1897,

## Pet safety

The ASPCA lists Ficus species (common names include weeping fig and Indian rubber plant) as toxic to dogs, cats and horses; the toxic principles are the proteolytic enzyme ficin and the psoralen ficusin. If a pet may have eaten it, the ASPCA advises calling its poison line or a local vet at once.

## Further reading

- [Reference library](https://floreboard.com/en/library/)

## References

- [WCVP · World Checklist of Vascular Plants (via ChecklistBank dataset 2232)](https://www.checklistbank.org/dataset/2232) · accessed 2026-10-28
- [Flora of China vol. 5 · Ficus](http://www.efloras.org/florataxon.aspx?flora_id=2&taxon_id=112770)
- [Kew (POWO data on the ColPlanta site) · Ficus lyrata native range and life form](https://colplanta.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:853158-1/general-information)
- [Kew (POWO data on the ColPlanta site) · Ficus benjamina native range](https://colplanta.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:852486-1/general-information)
- [Flora of China vol. 5 · Ficus elastica](http://www.efloras.org/florataxon.aspx?flora_id=2&taxon_id=200006353)
- [Flora of China vol. 5 · Ficus microcarpa](http://www.efloras.org/florataxon.aspx?flora_id=2&taxon_id=200006364)
- [ASPCA Animal Poison Control · Weeping Fig (Ficus sp.)](https://www.aspca.org/pet-care/aspca-poison-control/toxic-and-non-toxic-plants/weeping-fig)

Names, places of publication, synonyms and distribution checked against WCVP (2026-10-28); the text follows the cited sources and awaits specialist review.